iechmca.1  Trecc-rise,  On  Mobile,  tfrnllerv 

Find  Art's  D /e  Oper'arfion^ 


. 


TECHNICAL  TREATISE 
ON 

MOBILE  ARTILLERY  AND  ARTILLERY  OPERATIONS 

BY 

THOMAS  McLEAN  JASPER 

B.  S.,  University  of  Illinois,  1910 
M.  S.,  University  of  Illinois,  1911 


THESIS 

Submitted  in  Partial  Fulfillment  of  the  Requirements  for  the 

Degree  of 

CIVIL  ENGINEER 


IN 

THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 
1921 


\ 3 l\ 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 

THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL 


APRIL  19, 19fil 


I HEREBY  RECOMMEND  THAT  THE  THESIS  PREPARED  BY 

THOMAS  MCLEAN  JASPER 


ENTITLED 





BE  ACCEPTED  AS  FULFILLING  THIS  PART  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  THE 
PROFESSIONAL  DEGREE  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEER 


Head  of  Department  of  CIVIL  ENGINEERING. 


Recommendation  concurred  in: 


Committee 


*“»  * f 


' ( : r%  *\ 

(.>  V/iW  .JX- 


CONTENTS 


Page 


Introduction  1 

Early  History  of  artillery 3 

General  Type  of  Artillery  Used  by  Different  Ar- 
mies at  the  Beginning  of  the  War  ...  10 

Light  Field  Guns 10 

Light  Field  Howitzers 11 

Heavy  Field  Guns  11 

Heavy  Field  Howitzers  11 

Mortars 11 

Ammunition 14 


Propellant  

Shell  

Shrapnel  . . . 

High  Explosive 
Gas  shells  . . 
Smoke  Shells 
Incendiary  Shell 
Star  Shells  . . 


14 

lb 

16 

17 

19 
SO 

20 
£0 


Guns,  Howitzers,  Trench  Mortars  £1 

Guns  and  Howitzers £1 

Trench  Mortars  £4 


Airplane  Bombardment,  Anti-Aircraft  Bombardment 


and  Anti-Tank  Guns £b 

airplane  Bombardment  ....  £5 

anti-aircraft  Bombardment  . £6 

Anti-Tank  Guns £8 

Future  Development  of  artillery  .......  £8 

Trench  Mortars 3£ 

Anti-Tank  Guns 3£ 

anti-aircraft  Guns 33 

Special  Engineering  Problems  in  Dealing  with 

Major  artillery  Operations  3b 

Tr iangulat ion,  Mapping, and  Battery 

Surveys 3b 

artillery  Register  41 

Locating  Hostile  Batteries  and  Engaging 

Them  Without  Direct  Observation  44 

Flash  Spotting 47 

Sound  Ranging 48 

Construction  of  Gun  Pits  and  Ammunition  Dumps.  bl 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/technicaltreatisOOjasp 


1 


TKCPKIGAL  ThiSATIbB  OK  MOBILE  lihTlbLIA'.l  AKD  ARTILLERY  OPaRATIURS 

IRTRODUCTIOR 

The  following  treatment  of  mobile  artillery  operations  is 
■undertaken  for  four  purposes,  namely: 

(a)  To  endeavor  to  collect  together  such  of  the  experience 
of  artillery  operations  as  was  generally  understood  prior  to  the 
Great  War. 

(b)  To  outline  the  development  in  artillery  operations 
that  have  been  evolved  during  the  Great  War. 

(c)  To  outline,  in  general,  the  direction  which  develop- 
ment in  artillery  is  most  likely  to  follow. 

(d)  To  outline  some  special  engineering  problems  which 
apply  directly  to  modern  artillery  operations,  some  of  which  are 
directly  applicable  to  civilian  engineering  purposes. 

Artillery  has  had  an  increasing  part  in  the  operations 
of  armies  of  the  world  since  as  far  back  as  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  Prior  to  this  period,  mortars  and  explosives 
were  used  by  men  of  armies  as  part  of  the  infantry  units,  and 
their  duties  were  chiefly  to  create  diversion  for  the  enemy  and 
to  distract  him  from  his  main  objects,  the  principal  purpose  be- 
ing to  affect  the  morale  of  his  troops.  Guns  were  used  in  field 
operations  as  early  as  1314.  Prior  to  this  period,  gunpowder 
had  been  used  as  a filling  for  bombs,  and  a record  of  a very  early 
B.C.  use  of  a glass  sphere  filled  with  exposive  is  available, 
bince  the  year  1450,  the  real  development  of  artillery  as  it  is 
known  today  has  been  brought  about.  This  development  has  been 
greatly  assisted  by  the  forward  movement  of  science,  until 


today  in  war  the  artillery  is  the  most  technically  involved  arm 
of  any  service.  Especially  is  this  true  from  a tactical  point 
of  view. 

It  is  true  that  the  employment  of  artillery  in  warfare  is 
limited  to  the  type  and  up-to-dateness  of  the  weapon  used,  and 
also  to  the  supply  of  such  weapons  and  ammunition  for  them.  Al- 
so, in  large  measure,  it  is  limited  to  the  training  and  employ- 
ment of  the  personnel. 

The  writer  wishes  to  say  nothing  here  which  will  detract 
from  the  glory  and  self-sacrifice  of  infantry  units  or  engineer 
units  which,  during  the  first  part  of  the  Great  War,  literally 
made  of  themselves  a wall  of  humans  and  offered  themselves  as  a 
sacrifice  to  protect  the  nations  and  to  Save  the  tactical  situ- 
ation; neither  would  he  compare  the  later  work  of  the  infantry 
under  the  support  of  artillery,  with  plenty  of  ammunition,  so  as 
in  any  way  to  minimize  the  necessity  of  their  full  employment  in 
order  that  complete  success  might  attend  the  efforts  of  the  tac- 
tical commander.  He  simply  wishes  to  point  out  that  the  artil- 
lery, as  employed  during  the  Great  War,  required  a combatant 
personnel  of  the  most  highly  trained  kind,  where  organization 
and  co-ordination  were  developed  to  the  highest  degree. 

This  treatise  intends  to  have  very  little  to  do  with  the 
design  of  Runs,  howitgers,  mortars,  and  ammunition,  and  there- 
fore very  little  will  be  said  about  them.  It  is  intended,  how- 
ever, to  outline  the  growth  in  importance  of  artillery  operations, 
roughly  from  its  inception,  but  more  particularly  during  the 
Great  War ; ana,  if  possible,  to  outline  the  direction  in  which 
such  growth  is  tending. 


, 


- 

• 

f 

3 

EARLY  HILT OR Y OR  ARTILLERY 

In  the  earlier  days  of  artillery  operations,  special  trains 
of  artillery  were  raised  for  each  war.  It  is  obvious  that  such  a 
procedure  did  not  make  for  a highly  trained  c~nd  efficient  series 
of  units,  because  of  the  fact  that  there  was  little  continuity  in 
the  service  from  one  war  to  another;  and,  in  consequence,  artil- 
lery operations  assumed  a very  minor  portion  of  the  tactical  value 
of  an  army  during  this  period.  This  was  due,  in  large  measure,  to 
the  difficulty  in  transportation,  to  the  lack  of  training  of  the 
personnel,  and  to  the  lack  of  power  of  the  particular  weapons  in 
use.  To  throw  a hundred-pound  shot  one  thousand  yards  was  a great 
achievement  in  warfare,  and  was  not  accomplished  until  about  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Prior  to  this  period,  the 
enemy's  cavalry  could,  if  uninterrupted,  render  useless  the  ar- 
tillery of  an  army  in  a very  short  time.  Today,  a battery  of 
field  guns,  if  supplied  with  ammunition,  can  protect  its  ow:n 
front  against  any  type  of  attack,  and,  with  the  aid  of  the 
lighter  machine  gun  equipment  for  flank  protection,  is  practi- 
cally self-sustaining. 

About  the  year  1600,  record  is  obtained  of  the  average 
range  of  cannon,  being  less  than  one  thousand  yards.  Loon  after 

this  time,  however,  certain  experiments  were  made  with  gunpowder, 

' 

and,  in  1646,  a muzzle  velocity  of  1140  feet  per  second  was 
reached.  Since,  in  the  earlier  employment  of  artillery,  very 
little  tactical  value  was  obtained  from  their  use,  the  training 
of  personnel  assumed  very  little  importance.  Prom  the  time  of 
obtaining  a muzzle  velocity  of  over  1000  feet  per  second,  the 
development  of  artillery was  assured  as  an  arm  of  considerable 


4 


tactical  value ,lxifc the  difficulty  of  transporting  ordnance  and  ammu- 
nition and  the  slowness  of  loading  the  pieces  still  kept  it  as  a 
minor  arm.  The  training  of  the  gunner,  however,  became  of  great 
importance,  and  from  this  time  dates  a drill  procedure  which 
tended  to  increase  the  speed  and  accuracy  of  artillery  bombard- 
ments. The  increase  in  muzzle  velocity  in  1646  was  due  to  the 
strengthening  of  the  propellant  used.  This  necessitated  a heav- 
ier and  stronger  piece,  so  that  what  was  gained  in  muzzle  veloc- 
ity was  in  a measure  lost  in  mobility. 

The  Civil  V/ar  of  the  United  states,  coupled  with  the  Crim- 
ean and  Indian  Wars  of  England  and  the  Franco-Prussian  War,  de- 
veloped the  use  of  artillery  to  a degree  unprecedented  before,  and, 
growing  out  of  these  operations,  we  have  the  modern  breech-loading 
guns  and  howitzers.  Luring  the  period  of  transition,  breech  and 
muzzle  loading  guns  were  alternately  advocated. 

The  test  of  the  modern  weapon  came  when  the  hussic- Japan- 
ese War  was  fought,  where  the  speed  and  power  of  the  artillery 
made  itself  of  major  tactical  importance  in  warfare. 

Today  the  artillery  is  the  heavy-hitting  complement  of 
the  Army,  and,  during  the  Great  War  just  passed,  in  co-operation 
with  the  development  of  the  aeroplane,  it  has  assumed  a tactical 
importance  of  the  greatest  value.  The  technical  consideration 
so  that  a close  liaison  between  the  artillery  of  today  and  the 
flying  service  may  be  obtained,  make  it  imperative  that  the  ar- 
tillery personnel  should  be  selected  with  the  greatest  care  and 
trained  with  the  utmost  intelligence. 

Between  1646  and  18b0,  roughly,  the  development  of  ar- 
tillery was  mainly  confined  to  the  improvement  in  drill,  or  the 


, 


, 

- 


. 


, 

- 

, • 


f 


■ 


. 5 

service  of  the  piece,  to  the  increase  in  strength  and  kind  of  ma- 
terials used  for  ordnance,  which  allowed  a relatively  lighter  gun, 
and  to  the  improvements  in  the  propelling  power  of  powder.  The  im- 
provement in  drill  was  mainly  brought  about  by  having  permanently 
established  artillery  units,  where  greater  attention  was  paid  to 
the  discipline  and  auxilliary  equipments.  The  knowledge  of  the 
strength  of  materials  which  has  been  developed  mainly  since  this 
period  was,  however,  greatly  extended  in  the  early  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. Luring  the  Great  War,  it  has  come  to  my  knowledge,  however, 
that  in  Sussex,  England,  cast  iron  cannon  were  made  by  Baude  & 
Collet  in  1545,  and  in  the  Library  at  Maresfield  Park,  a history 
of  Sussex  collected  by  its  former  owner,  named  Shelley,  contains 
mention  of  foundries  operated  in  Sussex  much  earlier  than  the  date 
given  above.  An  idea  of  the  development  of  the  strength  of  pro- 
pellants for  guns  between  these  two  periods  can  be  obtained  by  a 
study  of  certain  available  records.  "The  Art  of  Gunna’y,"  pub- 
lished in  1647,  by  Master  Gunner  Lye,  gives  the  following  data: 
nA  six-pound  shot,  with  a charge  of  three  pounds  of  powder  and  a 
gun  elevation  of  five  degrees,  obtained  a range  of  703  yards. n 
In  1856,  at  Shceburyness , a record  of  tests  showed  that  a six- 
pound  shot,  under  the  same  conditions,  with  one  and  one-half 
pounds  of  powder  and  one  and  one-quarter  degrees  gun  elevation, 
attained  a range  of  688  yards.  In  other  words,  since  1647,  with 
the  use  of  one-half  the  weight  of  powder  and  one-fourth  the  gun 
elevation,  the  same  weight  of  shot  attained  approximately  the 
same  range,  - which  indicates  that  the  propelling  power  of  pow- 
der was  increased  about  eight  times  between  1647  and  1856.  Be- 
tween the  years  1850  and  1886,  the  muzzle-loading  and  breech- 


■ 


6 


loading  guns  alternately  were  advocated  by  different  government s. 
This  controversy  ended  mainly  due  to  the  fact  that  1886  marks  the 
period  when  black  powder  passed  out  of  use  as  a propellant  for 
military  guns,  and  also  to  the  fact  that  the  shape  of  shells  had 
been  so  considerably  modified  that  the  elongated  shell  with  driv- 
ing band  gas  check  had  superseded  all  others. 

With  the  passing  of  black  powder  as  a propellant  and  the 
adoption  of  the  breech-loading  weapon,  we  had  practically  what 
the  Great  War  was  started  with  in  the  form  of  guns  and  howitzers. 
The  development  of  the  value  of  artillery  between  1850  and  1886 
was  largely  due  to  increased  mobility,  the  training  of  personnel, 
and  the  use  of  rifling  in  guns  which  gave  the  shell  a tw’isting  mo- 
tion. From  1886  until  immediately  preceding  the  war,  the 

strength  of  materials,  the  self-contained  recoil  mechanism  which 
decreased  the  strain  on  gun  carriages,  and  the  increase  in  the 
power  and  efficiency  of  the  propellant,  were  the-  main  directions 
of  development. 

As  an  instance  bearing  out  the  growth  in  importance  of 
artillery:  At  the  Battle  of  Blenheim,  1704,  the  forces  under 

Marlborough  were  56,000  men  and  51  guns,  while  the  French  had 
60,000  men  and  61  guns,  or  approximately  one  gun  per  thousand 
men.  At  the  Battle  of  Austerlitz,  1805,  the  proportion  of  guns 
to  men  was  one  gun  to  400  men.  During  the  Civil  War,  the  aver- 
age proportion  of  guns  to  men  used  in  several  engagements  w;as 
about  one  to  300,*  , During  the  'Bus si o- Japanese  War,  the  aver- 
age proportion  of  guns  to  men  was  one  to  about  300, 

while  at  the  beginning  of  the  Great  War,  the  proportion  of  the 
field  guns,  irrespective  of  heavier  pieces, in  the  different 


7 


armies  on  the  Continent  were  as  follows:  Belgium,  one  gun  per 
270  rifles;  France,  one  gun  per  210  rifles;  Germany,  one  gun 
per  156  rifles;  Great  Britain,  one  gun  per  146  rifles;  Italy, 
one  gun  per  290  rifles;  Japan,  one  gun  per  240  rifles;  Rouman- 
ia,  one  gun  per  250  rifles;  Bussia,  one  gun  per  230  rifles; 
United  States,  one  gun  per  300  rifles;  Austria,  one  gun  per 
310  rifles.  During  the  war,  however,  this  proportion  was 
raised  until  an  average  of  one  gun  per  85  rifles  was  used  at 
times,  and  this  in  part  shows  the  importance  in  the  growth  of 
artillery  auring  the  last  two  hundred  years. 

Very  little  has  Been  said  about  the  ammunition  used  by 
the  artillery  during  the  earlier  history  of  artillery  opera- 
tions. This,  however,  has  had  a very  important  part  to  play 
in  the  value  of  artillery  operations,  and  it  is  due  to  the  de- 
velopment of  ammunition,  more  than  any  other  one  thing,  that 
changes  in  the  use  of  artillery  have  come  about  during  the 
Great  War.  In  addition,  heavy  artillery  has  been  used  in 
greater  quantity  thu-n  ever  before,  and  this  has  been  brought 
about  because  of  the  desire  of  using  heavier  projectiles.  The 
design  of  the  shape  and  stability  of  projectiles  has  had  a 
considerable  bearing  on  the  development  of  artillery  opera- 
tions. The  earlier  shapes  were  chiefly  round  shot,  and  con- 
sisted almost  entirely  of  solid  pieces  of  metal.  The  next  step 
was  to  make  round  shot  hollow  and  fill  them  with  explosives, 
which  could  be  exploded  by  the  burning  of  a time -fuse. 

During  the  earlier  part  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
Colonel  Bhrapnel  of  the  British  ^rmy  invented  a shell  which, 


8 


in  modified  formulas  lasted  to  the  present  day.  Grape  shot,  case 
shot,  chain  shot,  and  "bar  shot  have  also  been  used  from  time  to 
time,  the  name  indicating  the  type  of  construction.  The  introduc- 
tion of  rifling  in  guns  brought  into  use  the  elongated  shell, 
which  had  the  effect  of  decreasing  the  weight  of  the  gun  for  the 
same  weight  of  shell  used.  This  had  a very  marked  effect  on  the 
mobility  of  artillery,  and,  in  consequence,  on  its  usefulness. 
Prior  to  the  introduction  of  breech  loading  guns,  some  form  of 
stud  or  grove  was  necessary  in  the  shell,  in  order  that  it  might 
engage  the  rifling  of  the  gun  when  inserted  in  the  muzzle.  With 
the  introduction  of  the  breech  loading  piece  and  the  ^'ixed  cart- 
ridge case  in  the  smaller  guns,  the  necessity  for  grcowlng  the 
shell  or  adding  studs  was  done  away  with,  the  solid  driving  band 
was  introduced,  and  the  speed  of  serving  the  gun  was  brought  up 
to  the  present  maximum  rate.  This  rate  has  increased  to  the  max- 
imum of  what  the  present  field  gun  can  stand  with  safety  without 
some  cooling  device  being  employed. 

Parallel  with  the  changes  in  the  exterior  shape  of  the 
projectile,  large  changes  were  made  with  reference  to  the  gener- 
al interior  contents  of  it.  Gariy  in  the  history  of  shell  design, 
hollow  spheres  were  made  which  were  filled  with  black  powder  and 
sometimes  with  scrap  iron.  With  the  use  of  the  elongated  shell, 
together  with  the  rifling  of  the  piece  and  the  application  of 
bhrapnel's  invention  to  them,  the  shape  and  purpose  of  the  modern 
field-gun  shrapnel  shell  had  been  very  little  changed  up  to  the 
beginning  of  the  late  war.  Prior  to  the  invention  by  bhrapnel, 
shells  were  filled  with  black  powder,  and  depended  on  the  explo- 
sion of  the  shell  and  the  damage  done  by  the  fragments. 


. 


■ 


. . 


, 


, 


( 


» 


« 

► 


9 


The  development  of  the  explosive— filled  shell  kept  pace  w ith 
the  invention  of  explosives.  When  the  French,  in  1886,  adopted 
nitro  cellulose  as  a propellant,  it  gave  a great  impetus  to  ex- 
plosives, and  from  then  on,  explosives  suitable  for  the  interior 
of  shells  were  closely  studied  and  many  new  kinds  worked  out. 

About  this  time,  also,  General  Rodman,  of  the  United  States  Army, 
did  a considerable  amount  of  work  in  propellants  which  helped 
greatly  in  the  developments  then  brought  about.  When  Lyddite,  or 
some  other  form  of  Picric  acid,  was  first  used,  its  effect  was 
supposed  to  be  such  that  no  life  could  exist  within  50  yards  of 
the  explosion,  so  great  was  the  detonating  effect.'  This  explos- 
ive, or  some  slight  modification  of  it,  was  used  in  high  explosive 
shells  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  by  almost  every  great  nation. 

Nothing  has  been  said  in  this  thesis  as  to  the  develop- 
ment of  gun  carriages.  Until  the  last  twenty  years,  the  gun 
carriage  had  been  changed  very  little,  with  the  exception  of  the 
size  of  wheels  and  the  strength  of  the  carriage  to  take  care  of 
the  larger  muzzle  velocity  developed  in  the  piece.  Since  about 
1895,  the  self-contained  recoil  mechanism  of  the  modern  gun  has 
been  developed,  and  no  one  thing  in  gun-carriage  construction 
has  had  a greater  effect  on  the  accuracy  and  rapidity  of  the  ser- 
vice of  artillery.  Prior  to  this,  the  eun,  properly  attached  to 
its  carriage,  was  placed  on  a ramp,  which  consisted  of  an  upward 
slope  in  rear.  When  the  gun  was  fired,  the  shell  went  forward, 
and  the  gun  advanced  to  the  rear  up  the  ramp,  with  more  or  less 
uncertain  gait.  The  tendency  of  the  ramp  w as  to  restore  the 
piece  to  its  original  firing  position,  at  the  beginning  of  the 


10 


Great  War,  most  of  the  different  countries  had  their  campaign  ar- 
tillery equipped  with  some  kind  of  recoil  mechanism.  The  pre-v/ar 
system,  as  used  by  the  British,  German,  Austrian,  and  American 
artillery,  comprised,  in  the  main,  a spring  recuperator  with  an 
oil  buffer.  The  French,  however,  used  an  air  recuperator  'with 
oil  buffer,  which  made  the  service  of  the  gun  sc  equipped  very 
rapid,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  piece  would  recoil  and  recover 
with  the  least  displacement  of  the  gun  carriage  after  the  first 
round  had  been  fired,  due  to  more  perfect  control  of  the  applica- 
tion of  the  retarding  and  recuperating  forces,  and  also  to  the 
fact  that  the  heat  developed  in  discharging  the  gun  tended  to  im- 
prove operation  rather  than  to  put  the  gun  out  of  action,  as  is 
the  case  of  the  spring  recuperator. 


GENERAL  TYPE  OF  ARTILLERY  USED  BY  DIFFERENT  ARMIES  AT  THE 

BEGIRDING  OF  THE  WAR 

A general  description  of  the  artillery  used  for  field 
operation  by  the  different  armies  at  the  beginning  of  the  world 
war  may  be  summarized  under  the  following  five  general  heads,  as 
shown  below: 


Light  Field  Guns.  Calibre  2.5"  to  3.5".  General  type; 
spring  recuperator,  hydraulic  buffer.  Piece  varying  from  20  to 
35  calibres  in  length,  firing  high  exposive  and  shrapnel  shell, 
and  being  capable  of  carrying  out  a sustained  bombardment  of  about 
6 rounds  per  gun  per  minute,  with  occasional  rare  bursts  of  10 
rounds  per  gun  per  minute.  Weight  of  shell  from  12  to  25  pounds. 
Primarily  designed  against  troops  in  the  open  or  with  slight  pro- 
tection. The  exception  to  the  above  is  found  in  the  French  75  m.m. 
which  used  an  air  recuperator. 


11 


Light  Field  Howitzers.  Calibre  3.0”  to  5”.  General  type; 
spring  recoil,  hydraulic  buffer.  Piece  varying  from  10  to  18  cal- 
ibres in  length.  Using  high  explosive  and  shrapnel  shell,  capable 
of  carrying  out  a sustained  bombardment  of  about  4 rounds  per  gun 
per  minute,  with  occasional  rare  bursts  of  6 rounds  per  minute. 
Weight  of  shell  from  £0  to  60  pounds.  Primarily  designed  against 
troops  in  the  open  behind  crests  of  considerable  height  or  in 
trenches  where  high  angle  fire  is  necessary.  These  were  also  used 
for  light  demolition  operations. 

Heavy  Field  Guns.  Calibre  3.5”  to  6".  General  type  as 
above,  firing  shells  up  to  about  100  pounds,  and  used  primarily 
for  bombarding  concentration  points  and  railway  terminals. 

Heavy  Field  Howitzers.  Calibre  5"  to  IE”.  General  type 
as  above,  and  firing  shells  up  to  750  pounds.  Used  mainly  for 
field  fortifications  and  very  strong  points.  The  lighter  pieces 
of  the  group  used  for  counter  battery  work. 

Mortars . The  Austrians  had  built  some  very  heavy  mortars, 
which  were  used  to  reduce  the  forts  at  Maubeuge  and  Leige.  Ho 
trench  mortars  were  used  at  the  beginning  of  the  war. 

The  history  of  the  Great  War  can  be  traced  tc  a large  ex- 
tent in  the  artillery  development  between  1914  and  1918. 

The  quick  advance  of  the  German  army,  supported 


12 


"by  a large  force  plenteously  supplied'  with  artillery  and  ammuni- 
tion, opposed  at  first  "by  forces  with  relatively  little  artillery 
and  ammunition,  the  gradual  proportional  increase  of  the  artil- 
lery and  ammunition  of  the  Allies  and  the  uses  to  which  artillery 
was  placed,  until  the  artillery  became  extremely  numerous  in  pro- 
portion to  the  other  arms,  and  ammunition  exceedingly  plentiful. 
During  the  period  of  transition,  the  Allied  infantry  and  artillery 
forces  carried  out  an  extremely  difficult  task,  and,  as  has  be- 
fore been  mentioned,  did  a work  which  has  never  before  been  sur- 
passed. The  tactical  advantage,  however,  nearly  always  lay  with 
the  force  with  the  preponderance  of  guns  and  ammunition. 

The  general  artillery  development  of  the  allies  during  the 
war  was, first, to  manufacture  more  ammunition.  This  burnt  out  the 
guns.  The  next  step  was  to  build  more  guns  of  the  pre-war  type 
and  to  bring  into  service  certain  types  considered  obsolete , since 
no  time  was  available  for  d-eveloping  new  types.  The  next  thing 
was  to  protect  the  guns  from  hostile  counter  battery  work,  be- 
cause, as  soon  as  guns  and  ammunition  became  more  plentiful,  the 
enemy's  attention  was  focused  on  gun  emplacements  and  counter 
battery  work,  and  the  excessive  pressure  was  taken  off  the  in- 
fantry. The  next  step  was,  (and  this  after  trench  warfare  had 
become  necessary) , to  build  gun  pits  which  would  protect  tne 
guns  and  men  from  excessive  bombardments.  As  the  guns  became 
more  numerous,  the  co-ordination  of  the  work  they  w;ere  to  carry 
out  became  more  and  more  difficult,  and  communications  between 
batteries  and  the  troops  they  were  supporting  assumed  greater 
importance.  These  conditions  developed  a system  of  trench  raid- 
ing with  the  assistance  of  the  artillery  at  night , and  later  on 


by  day,  in  which  communications  usually  suffered  and  co-operation 
more  or  less  failed.  This  led  to  extensive  telephone  and  Morse 
systems  of  communication.  The  next  step  was  the  trench  mortar  in 
various  forms,  which  cut  down  the  communication  systems  necessary 
hetween  infantry  and  supports  in  time  of  raid,  and  allowed  the 
front  line  to  be  self-sustaining  in  minor  engagements.  Hand 
grenades  and  rifle  grenades,  all  depending  on  the  supply  of  am- 
munition other  than  small  arm  were  used  in  numerous  forms.  The 
development  of  the  gas  attack  and  the  screening  of  troops  by  smoke 
by  the  use  of  shells  was  the  next  step. 

During  the  whole  of  this  period,  the  types  of  ordnance 
used  had  not  been  materially  altered,  vvith  the  exception  of  the 
construction  of  trench  mortars,  but  the  ammunition  had  undergone 
a very  great  change , both  in  kinds  in  use  and  the  proportion  of 
each  kind  used.  Ho  extensive  change  could  be  attempted  in  gun 
construction  for  fear  of  retarding  the  supply,  although  certain 
improvements  were  clearly  indicated  by  the  experience  of  w:ar  con- 
ditions. with  the  development  of  the  tank  came  a construction 
of  the  light  anti-tank  infantry  gun  and  a change  in  the  use  of 
field  guns  to  repel  tank  attack. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  war,  the  aeroplane  was  used  en- 
tirely as  a scout,  but  as  aeroplanes  became  more  numerous,  larger 
and  larger  numbers  were  assigned  to  the  artillery  service.  This 
service  developed  from  plain  observation  of  artillery  by  artillery 
observers  in  planes  to  a general  direction  of  artillery  work  in 

the  back  areas  from  the  airplane.  The  next  step  was  to  carry  out 
a considerable  number  of  bombardments  by  using  aeroplanes  equipped 

with  bombs  under  direction  of  commanders  trained  in  artillery 


- 

14 


demolition  work  in  areas  much  farther  "back  than  could  he  carried 
out  by  long  range  artillery,  and  this  developed  the  airplane  bomb- 
ing service,  which  is  undoubtedly  destined  to  replace  long  range 
artillery  in  warfare. 

With  the  increase  in  intensity  and  amount  of  counter  bat- 
tery work,  enemy  batteries  became  more  and  more  careful  in  select- 
ing positions,  and  the  development  of  the  flash  spotting  and  sound 
ranging  sections  were  brought  about,  which,  when  developed  to  their 
highest  point  of  efficiency,  allo?ved  batteries  to  be-  ranged  on 
known  targets  at  any  time  of  the  night  or  day,  and,  in  addition, 
permitted  the  location  of  careless  batteries. 

Toward  the  latter  part  of  the  war,  guns  underwent  some 
changes.  British  field  gun  carriages  were  reconstructed  after  the 
French  plan  of  air  recuperator  buffer,  and  a type  of  screw  breech 
which  was  invented  by  an  American  engineer  was  adopted  for  the 
guns.  A considerable  amount  of  the  transportation  formerly  car- 
ried out  by  horse-drawn  vehicles  became  motor  driven,  bervice 
tank  gun  carriages  were  tried  out,  and  in  certain  cases  put  into 
operation,  and  proved  successful  in  rapid  movement  warfare. 

AIvDSfUHITIOM 

Ammunition  is  divided  into  two  parts:  the  propellant  and 
the  shell  with  charge.' 

Propellant.  The  propellants  used  by  nearly  all  artiller- 
ies are  very  similar,  and  are  composed,  in  general,  of  varying 
proportions  of  nitro-glycerine  or  nitrocellulose.  Both  types  of 
propellant  are  made  from  guncotton,  and  the  action  of  each  is 


' 


. • 


, 


’ 


. 


15 


quite  similar.  Nitro-glycerine  has  a higher  explosive  temperature 
of  the  two,  and  tends  to  more  rapid  wear  and  tear  of  the  piece. 

The  war  did  not  bring  about  any  material  change  in  the  composition 
of  propellants.  The  normal  explosive  action  with  propellants  con- 
sists of  progressive  burning.  Each  layer  of  the  propellant  is 
raised  to  its  ignition  temperature  by  heat  directly  transmitted  to 

it  from  the  layer  preceding  it.  Because  of  this  action,  the  pro- 
are 

pellantsAcallea  "low  explosives",  which  means  that  the  rate  of 
action  is  relatively  slow. 

Shell . Shells  are  divided  into  many  classes,  such  as 
Shrapnel,  High  Explosive,  Gas,  Smoke,  Star,  and  Incendiary.  Gas 
shells  are  subdivided  into  Tear  Gas,  Poison  Gas,  Burning  or  Blis- 
tering Gas,  and  Sneezing  Gas.  Shrapnel  shell,  or  a similar  form, 
was  used  by  nearly  all  of  the  armies  at  the  beginning  of  the  war. 
The  British  used  a large  proportion  (about  90  per  cent)  in  their 
field  guns.  The  French  and  Germans  used  a larger  proportion  of 
High  Exposive.  By  the  beginning  of  1915,  the  British  used  75  per 
cent  Shrapnel  and  £5  per  cent  high  explosive,  which  showed  that 
for  trench  warfare  high  explosive  was  gaining  in  favor  with  them. 
The  Germans  produced  a shell  similar  to  the  ahrapnel,  but  with  ex- 
plosive mixed  with  the  bullets;  this,  however,  proved  very  un- 
satisfactory. During  1916  and  1917,  high  explosive  gained  ground 
with  reference  to  the  proportion  used,  and  shrapnel  became  less 
used,  but  in  1918,  shrapnel  came  back  again  as  the  open  warfare 


shell. 


_ — To 

The  bhrapnel  shell  is  made  up  as  fol- 
lows (see  Figure  1): 

The  container  A is  made  out  of  a rela- 
tively thin  shell  which  acts  as  the  carrier  of 
bullets.  A time  fuse  is  set  so  as  to  send  a 
flash  down  the  tube  C when  the  shell  reaches 


black  powder,  which  is  used  for  two  purposes, - 
one  to  propel  the  bullets  out  of  the  shell, 
and  the  other  to  give  a thick,  white  smoke  so  as  to  locate  its 
burst  easily.  The  shell  case  is  supposed  to  be  strong  enough  to 
resist  being  broken  up,  so  that  it  acts  in  a manner  similar  to  a 
shot  gun  as  soon  as  it  reaches  the  desired  range.  The  effect  is 
as  in  Figure  2. 

The  German  Government  adopted,  in 
1915,  a shell  containing  numerous  bullets 
with  high  explosive  melted  between  the  in- 
terstices. The  burst  was  about  the  same 
height  as  ordinary  shrapnel,  but  the  bul- 
lets seemed  to  have  very  little  penetrating 
effect.  Instead  of  the  bullets  coming  down 
as  a hail  shower,  and  as  soon  as  the  shell 
had  exploded,  they  seemed  to  take  about  15 
seconds  to  finish  dropping,  and  were  scat- 
tered over  an  area  of  about  80  yards  in  diameter.  Following  this, 
they  adopted  a segmented  shell  filled  with  high  explosive  on  the 

inside  of  the  inner  segment.  The  shell  was  built  up  of  three  lay- 
ers. The  outside  case  was  segmented  similar  to  the  Mills  bomb  but 


Bo  l lets 


\ \ \\  \ 


Figure  2 


on  the  inside  surface,  and  the  inner  two  cases  segmented  on  the 


, 

t 

, 


. 


- 


f 

. 


. 


17 


outside  surface.  This  was  exploded  in  air,  and  had  a varying  ef- 
fect, depending  on  the  height  of  hurst.  In  general,  many  of  the 
pieces  fell  after  about  10  to  lb  seconds,  with  very  little  effect 
because  of  loss  of  velocity  due  to  air  resistance,  later,  they 
adopted  the  shrapnel  as  used  by  the  other  armies.  The  shrapnel 
shell  has  held  its  own  as  the  light  field  gun  shell  for  open  war- 
fare. The  greatest  improvement  has  been  the  adoption  of  a mechan- 
ical time  fuse  in  certain  armies,  which  will  enhance  the  value  of 
the  shrapnel  shell  considerably  and  allow  ranges  for  shrapnel  use 
which  could  not  have  been  maintained  with  the  old-type  time  fuse. 

The  High  Explosive  Shell  is  construc- 
ted (see  Figure  3)  with  a relatively  thick 
wall  inside  of  which  it  is  filled  with  a 
high  explosive.  The  high  explosive  used 
by  the  British  was  Lyddite;  by  the  French, 
Melenite,  and  by  the  Japanese,  Bhimose. 
These  are,  in  fact,  simply  Picric  acid,  and 
the  fancy  names  used  are  merely  camouflage. 
Tri-nitro-toluene  was  the  high  explosive 
used  by  the  Serbians. 

The  production  of  such  high  explos- 
ives increased  very  rapidly  during  the  w;ar,  and.  Picric  acid  could 
not  be  obtained  in  sufficient  quantities  to  supply  the  demand,  and 
tri-nitro-toluene  was  used  to  a much  larger  degree  than  Picric 
acid.  It  is  much  easier  to  manufacture  on  a larger  scale,  and 
possesses  several  distinct  advantages,  the  main  one  being  that 
it  is  less  dangerous  and  more  easily  handled.  By  one  army  alone, 
during  the  war,  69,000  tons  of  Picric  acid  and  £60,000  tons  of 


tri-nitro-toluene  was  used,  principally  for  the  filling  of  shells. 

High  explosive  differs  from  low  explosive  mainly  in  the 
rate  of  the  explosion.  In  low  explosives,  a progressive  reaction 
prevails,  while  in  high  explosives  it  is  practically  instantane- 
ous. The  use  of  high  explosive  shell  at  the  beginning  of  the  war 
wras  chiefly  for  demolition  purposes  or  for  destructive  bombard- 
ments against  fortifications.  The  French  used  it  as  an  air  burst 
shell,  and  the  Germans  developed  the  same  idea  early  in  the  war. 
The  British,  however,  practically  never  used  it  as  an  air  burst 
shell,  except  for  wire  cutting  or  for  aircraft  bombardments.  Wire 
cutting  developed  the  graze  fuse,  and  the  effect  of  the  graze  fuse 
with  high  explosive  recommends  its  use  for  open  warfare;  but  where 
the  ground  was  sufficiently  hard  and  the  trajectory  slope  suffi- 
ciently small,  delay  action  fuses  gave  the  best  results  in  open 
warfare  (see  Figure  4).  The  heavier  guns  used  high  explosives 
with  delay  actionffuses  against  heavy  fortifications  and  concen- 
tration points,  the  delay  action  in  this  case  being  such  as  to 
allow  time  for  penetration. 


Figure  4 


V 


, 


, 


. 


19 


Four  fuses  have  survived  the  war  for  use  with  the  high 
explosive  shell:  the  graze  fuse,  the  delay  action  fuse,  the 

plain  percussion,  and  the  mechanical  time  fuse  for  aircraft 
straffing.  The  first  two  are  destined  to  he  of  great  value 
against  troops  in  the  open,  and  the  second  for  demolition  also. 

The  third  type  of  fuse  was  what  the  war  was  started  with. 

Gas  shells,  as  known  today,  were  used  for  the  first  time 
during  the  war,  and  their  development  h~.s  been  largely  due  to  the 
unsatisfactory  use  of  gas  from  projectors  and  to  the  desire  of 
using  it  behind  theaiemy's  lines. 

There  were  four  types  of  gas  shell  in  use  at  the  time  the 
armistice  was  signed,  viz.,- 

(a)  Lachrymatory,  or  tear  gas, 

(b)  Lethel,  or  poisonous  gas, 

(c)  Vesicatory,  burning  or  blistering  gas, 

(a)  sternutatory,  or  sneezing  gas. 

The  first  two  kinds  were  used  principally,  although  vesicatory  and 
sternutatory  gases  were  used  considerably  towrard  the  latter  part  of 
the  war.  The  chemical  formula  for  these  gases  are  carefully  guard- 
ed, and  it  is  not  in  the  nature  of  this  thesis  to  tabulate  here 
such  as  I possess.  Lethel  gases  fall  into  two  groups,  - light  and 
heavy.  The  heavy  gas  is  used  when  an  attack  is  not  to  follow,  and 
the  light  gas  when  an  attack  is  pending  or  when  the  atmospheric 
conditions  are  satisfactory  for  their  use.  In  using  chemical 
gases,  great  care  is  necessary  in  order  to  utilize  the  atmospheric 

conditions  to  the  best  advantage.  The  shell  is  similar  in  con- 

page  17 

struction  to  the  high  explosive  (Figure  5)  , but  with  thinner  walls 


, 


. 


. 


20 


and  with  a filling  of  the  gas  either  in  solid  form  or  as  a liquid. 

An  exploder  is  usually  provided  which  will  generate  sufficient 
heat  to  liberate  the  gas  for  the  effect  desired.  The  graze  type 
of  fuse  is  the  most  useful  for  the  distribution  of  gas  from  shells. 

Smoke  shells  are  similar  in  construction  to  the  gas  shells, 
and  are  usually  filled  with  white  phosphorous,  which,  when  burst 
with  a sufficient  exploder,  gives  off  a dense,  white  smoke.  This 
shell  is  destined  to  be  used  very  considerably  in  the  attack  for 
screening  infantry  against  machine  guns.  The  best  effect  is  ob- 
tained with  a time  fuse  w!ith  low  burst,  either  this  or  a graze  fuse. 

The  incendiary  snell  is  similar  in  construction  to  shrap- 
nel, with  the  bullet  space  filled  with  thermit  or  something  simi- 
lar. The  best  effect  is  obtained  with  a time  fuse  which  is  set  to 
burst  very  near  the  ground.  When  burst  under  such  conditions,  the 
effect  is  very  good  indeed.  Green  timber  and  grass  are  set  on  fire 
by  its  use.  It  also  forms  a fairly  effective  smoke  screen. 

Star  shells  are  similar  in  construction  to  the  above,  with 
bullet  space  filled  with  stars  or  lights.  They  are  used  at  night, 
usually  as  signals,  and  with  time  fuse. 

The  war  development  of  shells  has  been  to  add  all  of  the 
above  types  except  shrapnel  and  high  explosive  to  the  list,  and 
has  considerably  extended  the  use  of  high  explosive  by  the  addi- 
tion of  the  graze  and  delay  action  fuses.  It  hc,s  also  extended 
the  use  of  shrapnel  and  high  explosive  by  the  development  of 
mechanical  time  fuse. 


£1 


GURb,  HOWITZERS,  TREE  GH  MORTARS 

Guns  uiid  howitzers.  During  the  war,  ordnance  changes  were 
very  few,  due  in  large  measure  to  the  dangerous  proceeding  of  chang- 
ing old  types  for  better  pieces  and  in  consequence  cutting  down  the 
supply  to  the  forces.  An  instanc  e of  what  is  meant  is  shown  in  the 
partial  equipment  of  the  United  states  troops  with  modified  Enfield 
rifles,  because  plants  were  available  in  the  United  States  for  turn- 
ing out  great  numbers  of  them,  while  facilities  were  lacking  for  man- 
ufacturing the  United  States  service  pattern  in  sufficient  quantity. 
So  with  the  general  types  of  ordnance  in  use  at  the  beginning  of  the 
war.  Toward  the  end  of  the  war,  however,  the  British  had  adopted  the 
air  recuperator  in  most  of  their  mobile  artillery.  They  had  also 
adopted  the  single  movement  screw  breech  and  a trail  to  their  light 
gun  carriage  which  allowed  the  field  gun  to  increase  its  elevation, 
and  certain  types  of  heavy  guns  were  mounted  on  railway  mountings. 

It  was  noted  early  in  the  war  that  the  German  field  guns  and  how- 
itzers seemed  to  wear  less  rapidly  than  was  the  average  case  with 
the  allies’  field  guns  and  howitzers,  as  tne  groves  on  the  driving 
bands  of  shells  due  to  the  rifling  always  seemed  more  distinct.  The 
life  of  field  ordnance  before  the  war,  measured  in  shells  consumed, 
was  considered  to  be  about  one  fourth  of  what  was  actually  fired 
during  the  war.  This,  means,  however,  that  the  guns  and  howitzers 
were  allowed  to  wear  to  a point  which  was  previously  considered  in- 
accurate and  dangerous,  an  interesting  outgrowth  of  such  longer 
life  has  been  the  improved  range  drum  in  some  types  of  gun,  which 
permitted  muzzle  velocity  corrections  to  be  automatically  adjusted 
for. 


. 

. 

, 


22 


After-war  design,  however,  will  he  sure  to  take  into  con- 

ana  howitzers, 

sideration  the  motorization  of  guns^  either  hy  having  a tractor 
in  place  of  horses,  or  hy  having  a gun  mounted  on  self-propelled 
caterpillar  or  ordinary  wheel  mounts.  From  many  tests  held  dur- 
ing the  war,  it  is  considered  that  for  light  artillery  the  cater- 
pillar is  the  only  prime  mover  which  can  adequately  replace  a 
team  over  rough  or  soft  ground,  and  in  order  that  an  ideal  gun 
mount  caterpillar  may  he  designed,  it  must  conform  to  certain 
specifications,  as  follows: 

(a)  It  must  have  a platform  which  is  relatively  low,  so 
as  to  give  it  the  maximum  stability. 

(h)  It  should  have  a traverse  of  at  least  60  degrees, 
preferably  by  having  a pedestal  type  mount  for  the  gun. 

(c)  It  should  he  able  to  he  operated  so  as  to  approach 
the  enemy,  gun  muzzle  forward  or  to  retreat  with  its  gun  muzzle 
to  the  rear,  with  the  possibility  of  its  fighting  personnel  be- 
ing protected. 

(d)  It  should  he  able  to  he  fired  from  the  traveling 
position,  without  further  ground  support,  if  necessary. 

(e)  Its  maximum  speed  should  not  he  less  than  ten  miles 
per  hour. 

(f)  It  must  he  able  to  transport  a reasonable  amount  of 
ammunition. 

(g)  Caterpillar  ammunition  caissons  will  also  he  neces- 
sary. 

Tests  that  have  already  been  made  with  caterpillar  mount- 
ings have  shown  conclusively  that  a brigade  similarly  equipped 


23 


needs  about  40  per  cent  as  much  rail  train  space,  and  will  require 
about  35  per  cent  as  much  shipping  weight  for  transportation. 
Motorized  artillery  will  cover  about  three  times  the  distance  cov- 
ered by  horse-drawn  artillery  in  a day,  and  can  keep  it  up  contin- 
uously. In  addition  to  this,  the  supply  transportation  necessary 
for  motor  prime  mover  fuel  will  be  considerably  less  than  horse 
fodder.  It  is  not  suggested  that  this  change  be  made  until  a good 
type  of  carriage  has  been  designed,  and  it  may  even  then  be  wise 
to  motorize  slowly.  A considerable  opposition  will  exist  to  motor- 
izing artillery,  and  especially  the  lighter  types.  The  writer  him- 
self served  four  years  of  the  war  with  a horse  unit,  and  knows  the 
faithful  and  consistent  w/ork  done  by  them. 

The  advantages  of  the  motorized  equipment  are  briefly  as 

follows: 

(a)  It  requires  less  personnel  to  operate,  and  is  less 

vulnerable . 

(b)  The  horse,  when  once  wounded,  becomes  an  encumbrance 
and  decreases  the  available  tractive  power. 

(c)  The  caterpillar  can  negotiate  all  ground  possible 
with  horse-drawn  batteries. 

(d)  Less  display  and  therefore  liable  to  less  attention 
from  the  enemy. 

(e)  Less  road  space  required. 

(f)  Practically  immune  from  machine  gun  fire  and  there- 
fore from  airplane  attack. 

(g)  Requires  far  less  supplies  to  operate,  but  necessi- 
tates a more  highly  trained  personnel  if  remount  and  veterinary 
personnel  are  not  considered. 

■ — ___ 


24 


2 x v>  V V 

Trench  Llortars.-  Although^ mortars  v/ere  used  very  early 
in  warfare,  they  were  not  considered  as  part  of  the  equipment 
of  a modern  army  at  the  beginning  of  the  war.  The  trench  mortar 
may  he  considered  as  a long  range  bomb  thrower  which  possesses 
the  following  characteristics: 

(a)  Lightness  when  considering  the  weight  of  shell  fired. 

(b)  Simple  in  operation,  not  requiring  the  complicated 
drill  of  artillery. 

(c)  High  angle  fire,  allowing  it  to  be  fired  from  a 
trench  or  well-protected  cover. 

(d)  The  effect  of  shell  against  trenches  and  earthworks 
very  great. 

(e)  Cost  of  and  difficulty  of  production  less  than  mo- 
bile artillery. 

The  trench  mortar  is  not  expected  to  take  the  place  of 
field  guns  and  howitzers,  but  can  be  best  described  as  an  auxil- 
liary  which  can  be  made  as  mobile  as  infantry  with  very  little 
construction  difficulty.  The  general  direction  of  future  devel- 
opment of  trench  mortars  is  a modification  of  a motorcycle  side 
car  arrangement  for  the  lighter  trench  mortars,  and  a whippet 
tank  for  the  heavier  types. 

In  the  United  btntes  tests  on  equipment  for  the  motor- 
ization of  artillery  has  been  carried  very  far  indeed.  Very 
little  has  been  done,  however,  on  trench  mortars  which  should 
accompany  infantry.  This,  however,  is  probably  due  to  the  con- 
sideration that  future  Wars  will  be  wars  of  movement  rather  than 
of  trench  warfare.  Yet  if  probable  future  wars  are  to  be 


- 


■ 


■ 


25 


considered,  and  a certain  period  of  time  is  to  be  given,  such  as 
is  at  present  advocated  by  many,  before  actual  fighting  begins, 
the  tendency  will  be  for  trench  warfare  to  be  determined  on  by 
the  weaker  power,  which  will  compel  the  stronger  power  to  resort 
to  the  same  method  as  was  adopted  in  the  first  three  years  of  the 
past  war. 

AIRPLANE  BOMBARDMENT  , AN  T I -a  IR  C RAF  T BOMBARDMEIIT , AMD  ANTI-TANK  GUN  b 
Airplane  Bombardment. - 

Little  has  been  said  of  the  development  of  bombardment 
by  aircraft.  Such  methods  were  developed  entirely  during  the 
war  by  air  forces.  It  was  undertaken  by  that  part  of  the  air 
force  whose  duty  it  is  to  act  in  the  capacity  of  long  range 
guns  and  to  destroy  strong  points  and  concentration  points  be- 
hind the  lines.  The  value  of  such  equipment  may  not  be  under- 
estimated, and  the  economy  and  accuracy  of  such  methods  are  far 
in  excess  of  long  range  bombardments  with  heavy  and  cumbersome 
guns,  which  requires  a large  amount  of  transportation  in  a war 
of  movement,  and,  in  fact,  are  unable  to  be  employed  with  any- 
thing like  the  tactical  value  that  their  trouble  and  expense 
should  demand.  In  a war  of  movement  or  trench  warfare,  where 
roads  are  of  paramount  value  for  the  movement  of  troops,  and 
where  roads  are  often  few  and  badly  constructed,  the  squadron 
of  bombarding  aeroplanes  is  worth  several  heavy  batteries,  in- 
asmuch as  it  can  have  a greater  range  of  operation,  can  select 
its  targets  of  military  value,  and  can  do  its  work  in  a manner 
tending  to  protect  the  lives  of  the  non-combatant  population. 


. 

. 

♦ 

* 

£6 


The  personnel  engaged  is  very  much  less  in  proportion  to  the  mil- 
itary value  obtained.  The  hitting  of  a target  from  sometimes  two 
miles  above  the  ground  calls  for  a bombing  sight  which  would  need 
descriptive  details  far  beyond  the  scope  of  this  thesis.  The  gen- 
eral principle,  however,  is  that  of  locating  the  spot  on  the 
ground  over  which  the  plane  with  the  bomb  is  flying,  setting  the 
sights  according  to  the  relative  height  of  the  plane  and  the 
ground  speed  of  the  plane  and  then  maneuvering  for  position.  The 
results  obtained  were  very  good  indeed,  but  it  will  require  care- 
ful training  of  the  personnel  in  order  to  operate  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage. Care  must  be  taken,  however,  that  the  plane  is  flying  on 
an  even  keel,  and  that  it  is  not  increasing  or  decreasing  speed 
immediately  prior  to  the  release  of  the  bomb. 

Flying  developments  are  of  greatest  interest  to  the  ar- 
tillery. The  helicopter  has  been  experimented  with  since  early 
in  1915.  This  machine,  which  depends  on  propellers  set  at  dif- 
ferent angles,  will  allow  an  air  machine  to  rise  almost  vertical- 
ly from  a position  and  to  alight  in  a very  small  space.  At  least 
one  nation  has  spent  considerable  sums  in  investigat ing  such  a 
possibility,  and  since  such  investigations  were  started  in  1915 
and  are  still  carried  on,  it  would  lead  one  to  believe  that  con- 
siderable value  is  attached  to  such  an  arrangement.  The  chief 

difficulty  lies  in  stabilizing  the  machine  in  the  air  and  to  pre- 
vent it  from  acting  as  a top. 

Anti-Aircraft  Bombardment.  The  best  anti-aircraft  weapon 
is  the  fast  aeroplane  itself,  operated  by  an  aggressive  body  of 
pilots  and  machine  gunners.  Anti-aircraft  artillery  has  been  de- 
veloped, however,  and  an  anti-aircraft  weapon,  which  comprises 


£7 


bss&£ 

quick-firing  guns  for  a range  up  to  10,000  yards  and  an  angle  of 
elevation  of  approximately  90  degrees  has  been  very  successfully 
used.  The  main  difficulty,  however,  has  been  the  fuse  which  will 
burst  the  shell  in  the  air  for  this  range.  The  development  of  the 

clockwork  fuse  has  greatly  enhanced  the  value  of  the  anti-aircraft 

gun.  The  main  difficulty  is  to  find  an  automatic  compensating 
sight  which  is  sufficiently  rapid  to  give  good  results.  It  must 
be  understood  that  it  takes  a considerable  time  for  the  shell  to 
travel  from  the  gun  to  a point  in  the  neighborhood  of  a plane. 

The  plane  is  a fast-moving  object,  and  can  arrange  itself  after 

the  shell  has  left  the  gun  in  a great  many  different  positions, 

varying  from  a quarter  to  a half-mile  from  its  gun  sight  position 
at  the  time  the  gun  was  fired.  To  get  a direct  hit  requires  a 
considerable  amount  of  judgment  and  good  luck.  The  anti-aircraft 
batteries  have  been  mainly  employed,  therefore,  in  setting  up  bar- 
rages in  the  air  and  cutting  off  the  hostile  planes  from  their 
objectives  and  in  herding  them  until  the  friendly  airplane  is  in 
a position  to  deal  with  them.  The  psychological  effect  of  a shell 
bursting  in  the  neighborhood  of  an  airplane  tends  to  upset  the 
equilibrium  of  any  but  the  most  fearless  pilot.  It  is  then  that 
the  pilot  begins  to  realize  that  he  is  really  in  the  air,  and  that 
he  is  a long  way  from  friends.  To  persist  in  posing  as  a target 
is  almost  foolhardy,  and  is  likely,  although  he  gets  through  on 
his  mission,  to  result  in  information  of  questionable  value.  The 
low-flying  machine  gunning  plane  is  most  difficult  to  handle, 
however.  The  best  method  of  combating  this  is  a machine  gun  well 
pivoted,  or  the  quick-firing  light  field  gun  with  muzzle  burst 


r 


j 


28 


shrapnel.  The  greatest  room  for  improvement  in  the  anti-aircraft 
gun  is  in  the  sights  and  sighting  arrangement,  and  a combination 
of  range  finder  and  compensating  sights  seems  to  be  the  direction 
in  which  the  best  results  are  likely  to  be  obtained.  The  anti- 
aircraft gun  should  be  as  mobile  as  the  light  field  artillery. 

Anti-Tank  Guns.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  best  practice 
in  anti-tank  gun  construction  may  be  followed  from  a study  of  the 
German  method.  The  first  development  by  the  Germans  was  a rifle 
which  could  be  operated  by  an  infantryman  w:hich  had  a calibre  of 
about  one-half  inch,  using  an  armor  piercing  bullet.  The  next  de- 
velopment was  to  use  certain  light  field  guns  which  were  placed  in 
salient  positions,  but  so  arranged  as  to  give  a wide  arc  of  fire. 
The  development  of  the  future  will  no  doubt  be  a gun  mounted  on  a 
fast  -moving,//,  light  caterpillar,  and  using  a pedestal  mounting  with 
a gun  so  balanced  as  to  be  readily  handled.  This  type  of  gun  and 
caterpillar  is  also  the  direction  toward  which  the  future  light 
or  field  artillery  seems  likely  to  develop.  The  ammunition  for 
such  an  anti-tank  gun  should  have  a hard  nose,  with  either  a base 
fuse  or  a percussion  fuse  contained  immediately  behind  the  nose. 

Flash  spotting  and  sound  ranging  will  be  taken  up  as  spe- 
cial engineering  features,  and  will  not  be  treated  at  this  parti- 
cular part  of  the  thesis. 

FUTURE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  ARTILLERY 

The  future  development  of  artillery  will  be  governed  some- 
what by  the  political  situation,  and  also  by  the  attitude  taken  by 
the  most  militaristic  and  aggressive  nation  or  nations.  The 


, M 


. 


* 


. 

. 


. 


29 


successful  organization  of  the  league  of  nations  or  some  similar 
arrangement  will  go  a considerable  way  toward  decreasing  arma- 
ments. The  organization,  however,  will  he  determined  largely  on 
the  experience  obtained  in  the  war  just  passed  and  on  the  antici- 
pated character  of  the  expeditions  on  which  military  forces  are 
likely  to  be  utilized  in  the  future.  In  minor  operations,  the 
necessary  artillery  will  be  of  the  fast-moving  type,  while  the 
heavier  bombardments  will  likely  be  carried  out  by  the  use  of  air- 
planes. In  major  operations,  the  first  stages  will  also  have  to 
be  of  a similar  nature,  but  with  a relatively  greater  force  en- 
gaged. The  campaign  would  probably  open  with  airplane  reconnais- 
sance with  long-distance  bombing  designed  to  hinder  concentration 
of  troops.  The  strategical  advance  would  probably  be  carried  out 
by  mechanically  transported  units  of  infantry  with  fast-moving 
tanks  as  scouts  and  motorized  artillery  in  support.  The  trench 
system  will  not  appear  unless  the  weaker  force  wishes  to  gain  time 
for  concentration  or  training  of  its  non-militari zed  population. 
Until  trench  warfare  has  developed,  very  little  use  will  be  got- 
ten from  guns  of  the  larger  calibre,  and,  in  fact,  little  value 
v/ill  be  obtained  from  heavy  artillery  which  is  not  possible  in  the 
bombing  aeroplane,  because  of  the  fact  that  the  heavier  guns  are 
not  rapid  moving  equipments,  and  are  therefore  left  far  behind  in 
a war  of  movement.  The  calibre  of  guns  for  field  operation  will 
therefore  be  determined  by  their  mobility  and  usefulness.  The  gen- 
eral consensus  of  opinion  during  the  past  war  was  that  greater  shell 
power  is  needed.  However,  officers  with  considerable  experience 
in  the  use  of  guns  using  different  weights  of  shell  are  of  the 
opinion  that  the  quick-firing  light  field  gun  is  the  most  useful 


. 


30 


weapon  for  general  purposes  because  of  the  rapidity  of  its  service 
and  general  handiness  in  directing  its  fire,  and  also  because  of 
its  mobility. 

There  are  two  distinct  schools  of  development  for  mobile 
artillery,  and  they  are  parallel  up  to  a certain  point.  One  is  to 
use  bombing  airplanes  for  long-rahge  bombardments,  and  the  other 
is  to  trust  more  to  heavy  artillery;  while  both  advocate  using 
light  artillery  for  infantry  support  and  ordinary  artillery  w-ork. 
The  greater  feasibility  of  either  plan  hinges  on  the  accuracy  of 
the  bombing  plane,  which,  with  the  development  of  the  bombing 
sight,  can  be  as  accurate  as  the  long-range  gun  when  the  length 
and  breadth  zone  is  considered, even  when  the  gun  is  served  with 
good  airplane  observation.  The  range  of  action  of  the  airplane 
and  the  variation  of  the  size  of  its  bombs  allows  it  to  be  util- 
ized for  a much  greater  variety  of  purposes,  while  its  mobility 
and  readiness  to  serve  without  clogging  the  roads,  which  are  so 
much  needed  for  other  tactical  purposes,  apparently  makes  it  a 
much  more  economical  and  feasible  weapon.  The  bombing  airplane 
was  intensely  developed  during  the  latter  part  of  the  war  only, 
and  the  test  of  its  usefulness  was  carried  out  at  first  by  men 
who  had  had  relatively  little  experience  with  bombardments.  Its 
usefulness  has  been  demonstrated,  howrever,  and  in  the  hands  of 
an  aggressive  and  scientif ically  trained  personnel,  it  has  grec,t 
possibilities . 

The  calibre  of  guns,  howitzers,  and  trench  mortars  as 
used  most  consistently  during  the  late  war  are  as  follows:- 


31 

Guns  .. 

Weight  of 

Howitzers 

Weight  of 

Trench  Mortars 

Projectile 

Projectile 

by  weight  of 

Projectile 

3” 

15# 

4.0” 

30# 

10? 

5M 

60# 

6.0” 

100# 

50# 

6” 

100# 

8.0” 

200# 

100# 

150# 

At  the  beginning  of  the  war,  the  following  proportions  of 

field  guns  and  howitzers  to  rifles  and  machine  guns  were  available 

in  the  four  main  armies: 

American  ...  1 to  310 

British  ...  1 to  147 

French  ...  1 to  280 

German  ...  1 to  156 

During  the  war,  this  was  increased  in  certain  sectors  to  1 
to  60,  while  the  average  was  1 to  120.  During  a war  of  movement, 
it  is  difficult  to  maintain  such  a large  proportion  of  field  guns 
and  howitzers,  and  the  number  dropped  to  about  1 gun  per  160  rifles. 
This  latter  proportion  is  about  the  maximum  quantity  of  artillery 
that  could  economically  be  employed  with  the  war-time  method  of 
transportation  and  with  the  concentrations  of  troops  employed. 

With  motorization,  this  proportion  can  be  materially  increased,  or 
with  a lesser  cone entrat ion  of  troops  the  proportion  of  guns  can 
be  increased. 

With  motorization,, the  suggested  proportion  of  artillery 
assigned  to  field  operations  per  division  of  15,000  rifles  is  as 

follows : 


72  Field  Guns  3M  calibre  12,000  yards  quick  firing  up  to  10  r.p.u 


36 

Howitzers 

4" 

tt 

10,000 

18 

Guns 

5” 

1 * 

18,000 

8 

Howitzers 

6” 

tt 

15,000 

6 

Guns 

6" 

tt 

25 , 000 

3 

Howitzers 

8” 

Tt 

18,000 

5 r . p . n 


It 

TT 


Tt 


) 


. 


, 


. 

. 


, 

. 

, 

< 

32 


Trench  Mortars.  In  1915,  when  raiding  was  practiced  to  a 
considerable  extent,  protection  to  infantry  was  obtained  from  the 
field  artillery  immediately  behind  the  front  in  which  such  infan- 
try were  located.  Toward  the  latter  part  of  1917,  this  work  in 
general  was  taken  over  by  the  trench  mortar  batteries,  and  this 
support  could  be  carried  out  more  intelligently  because  the  mor- 
tars were  on  the  spot  and  more  accurate  observation  could  be  ob- 
tained. Luring  the  open  warfare  which  immediately  preceded  the 
armistice,  the  lighter  trench  mortars  were  pushed  forward  with 
the  infantry  on  improvised  carriages.  This  is  true  of  the  mortars 
using  the  10  lb.  and  50  lb.  projectile.  The  proportion  of  mortars 
used  during  the  latter  part  of  moving  warfare  was  as  follows: 

2 per  battalion;  10  lb.  projectile;  range , 2000  yards 

2 per  regiment;  50  lb.  projectile;  range,  3000  yards 

The  large  caliber  trench  mortars  are  necessary  only  when 
trench  warfare  has  developed. 

Anti-Tank  G-uns.  The  guns  used  for  anti-tank  work  will 
probably  be  the  ordinary  3-inch  quick-firing  gun,  and  using  a 
special  projectile  with  armor-piercing  nose.  This  is  also  the 
logical  light  gun  to  use  for  general  purposes,  and  which  will  be 
located  so  as  to  take  care  of  the  tanks  more  readily  in  whatever 

part  of  the  line  they  may  appear.  It  is  presumed  that  this  will 

be  the  type  of  field  gun  used,  which  will  be  on  a caterpillar 
base  and  a pedestal  mount  of  some  type  similar  to  the  small 
calibre  guns  on  a ship.  i£ ach  field  battery  should  be  provided 
with  a small  proportion  of  armour-piercing  ammunition. 


. 


■ 


. 


. 


23 


For  field  operations,  it  is  considered  that  the  bombing 
plane  will  be  sufficient  to  take  care  of  bombarding  the  enemy's 
back  areas  and  concentrat ion  points. 

Anti-Aircraft  Uuns.  The  future  development  of  the  attack 
on  enemy  aircraft  may  be  considered  from  two  standpoints: 

(a)  One  requiring  a very  mobile  gun  in  a position  with 
the  advanced  line  of  troops  to  provide  a screen  or  to  put  up  an 
air  barrage  which  will  prevent  hostile  airplanes  from  crossing 
the  line  and  to  prevent  reconnaissance . 

(b)  The  other  requiring  a very  much  more  carefully 
trained  personnel  and  a gun  essentially  designed  for  anti-air- 
craft straffing  after  the  airplane  has  crossed  the  lines.  This 
presents  a gunnery  problem  requiring  more  accuracy  and  also  al- 
lowing a less  mobile  type  of  gun  with  very  accurate  ranging 
devices. 

Problem  (a)  can  very  well  be  undertaken  by  a 5-inch  gun, 
provided  it  is  mounted  on  a caterpillar  with  a pedestal  mount 
capable  of  an  elevation  of  75  degrees  or  more  and  a considerable 
traverse.  This  also  outlines  the  ideal  light  field  gun  for  gen- 
eral purposes.  The  sights  necessary  for  high  angle  barrage  are 
simple,  and  could  be  assigned  to  the  ordinary  field  gun  battery, 
together  with  sufficient  long-time  fuses.  To  successfully  engage 
enemy  aircraft  so  as  to  prevent  his  doing  reconnaissance  work  be- 
hind your  own  lines,  it  is  necessary  to  engage  the  target  over  or 
behind  the  enemy's  lines.  The  expenditure  of  ammunition  under 
such  a condition  may  serve  two  purposes,  i.e., create  a barrage 


■ 

. 


' * J 


■ 

. 


34 


front 

which  prevents  enemy  aircraft  from  crossing  theAline,  and  also 
create  casualties  to  his  personnel  on  the  ground  behind  his  lines. 

Problem  (b)  is  one  which  demands  the  least  expenditure 
of  ammunition  consistent  with  the  object  to  be  attained,  and 
requires  ranging  devices  which  will  place  shell  bursts  uncomfort- 
ably close  to  the  flier.  If  a shell  can  be  burst  in  space  at 
any  designed  spot,  although  during  the  time  of  flight  of  the 
shell  the  target  may  not  have  moved  along  the  anticipated  path, 
the  target  can  at  least  be  prevented  from  moving  along  the  path 
which  will  result  in  its  doing  the  most  damage  and  therefore 
the  purpose  for  which  it  came  can  be  at  least  partially  thwarted. 
The  number  of  direct  hits  on  airplanes  by  anti-aircraft  guns  dur- 
ing the  war  were  very  few  indeed.  This  in  large  measure  is  due 
to  the  present  cumbersome  sighting  arrangements,  but  the  problem 
has  recently  assumed  a less  difficult  possibility  of  attainment, 
and  possibly  will  keep  all  but  the  most  daring  pilots  from  gain- 
ing their  objectives,  providing  the  anti-aircraft  artillery  are 
well  organized. 

One  thing  should  be  understood  in  discussing 

large  guns.  It  is  unlikely  that  if  sufficient  frontier  or  coast 
defense  guns  are  on  rnilvray  mountings  that  the  whole  of  them  on 
all  the  frontiers  will  be  required  for  that  particular  purpose 
during  the  period  of  any  particular  military  operation  or  series 
of  operations,  and  therefore  some  of  them  can  be  spared  for  field 
operations.  One  can  imagine,  also,  what  would  have  been  the  ef- 
fect of  the  guns  belonging  to  the  forts  of  ilamur  ana  Leige  at 
the  beginning  of  the  Great  war  if  they  could  have  been  withdrawn 
after  it  became  apparent  that  tactically  their  value  was  greater 


. 


U ' 

. 


F 


35 


elsewhere.  They  certainly  could  have  proved  much  more  difficult 
as  targets  if  their  position  could  have  been  changed;  in  other 
words,  if  railway  mountings  had  been  available  for  them.  A fort 
gun  fixed  on  concrete  mounts  can  possibly  do  better  work  than 
when  on  a railway  mounting  against  less  powerful  weapons.  It 
seems  very  foolish,  however,  for  such  guns  to  be  expected  to  com- 
pete with  more  powerful  guns  or  guns  very  difficult  to  locate, 
whose  positions  may  be  changed  after  they  have  been  located. 


SPECIAL  ENGINEERING  PROBLEMS  WHICH  COME  UP  IN  LEAL IHG-  WITH  MAJOR 

ARTILLERY  OPERATIONS 

Irisng  ulation,  Mapping,  and  Battery  Surveys.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  war,  although  Prance  and  Belgium  had  been  surveyed 
and  mapped,  it  became  necessary  to  have  a new  survey  made  of  the 
probable  battle  areas  so  as  to  construct  more  accurate  large 
scale  maps.  This  w;as  necessary  because  in  Prance  very  few1  areas 
had  been  accurately  mapped  on  a large  scale.  These  maps  would 
never  have  attained  the  accuracy  they  did  had  it  not  been  for  the 
special  needs  of  the  artillery.  The  old  French  survey  of  l/80,000 
was  used  and  enlargements  made  at  first,  but  map  range,  deflection 
angles,  and  elevations  from  such  maps  were  very  inaccurate.  It 
is  presumed  that  Prance  was  as  carefully  surveyed  as  was  necessary 
for  all  practical,  non-military  purposes,  but  it  became  necessary 
to  have  a military  survey  made  for  the  artillery  which  also  was 
useful  for  all  arms. 


36 


All  mapping  is  based  upon  a network  of  triangulat ion;  such 
a network  is  available  in  almost  all  civilized  countries.  In  France 
and  Belgium,  at  the  beginning  of  the  war,  there  were  three  inde- 
pendent systems  of  triangulation,  - one  French,  one  Belgian,  and 
an  international  system.  [The  first  really  useful  approach  to  a 
sufficiently  accurate  survey  for  the  artillery  was  obtained  by  the 
guns  themselves,  and  a description  of  the  first  artillery  plat  will 
here  be  given.  It  was  soon  very  obvious  that  the  original  maps  as- 
signed to  the  artillery  were  notoriously  inaccurate.  Che  triangula- 
tion points, . such  as  churches  and  prominent  windmills,  were  accur- 
ately located,  however,  and  their  co-ordinates  known;  and  these 
were  the  chief  landmarks  used  by  the  artillery,  together  with  any 
other  important  points  whose  visibility  from  the  batteries  were 
good.  The  intermediate  points  were  not  accurately  located,  how- 
ever, and  it  became  necessary  to  construct  battery  plats  from  fir- 
ing data,  which  were  handed  on  from  battery  to  battery.  From  these 
plats  successful  batteries  located  their  position  and  proceeded  to 
locate  certain  reference  points  which  were  used  as  aiming  points, 
witness  points,  and  calibration  targets.  The  panoramic  or  dial 
sight  was  used  by  each  gun  as  a transit,  and  the  gun  itself  was 
used  as  the  measuring  device.  In  this  manner  the  battery  was  able 
to  bring  accurate  fire  to  bear,  night  or  day,  on  any  visible  tar- 
get, but  this  was  possible  only  after  a complete  registration  by 
the  guns  on  such  targets.  Tactically  such  a procedure  was  danger- 
ous, and  resulted  in  an  unnecessary  expenditure  of  ammunition,  - 
dangerous  because  it  indicated  to  the  enemy  the  location  of  hostile 
guns  and  also  showed  him  whenever  any  concentration  was  in  progress 
or  any  change  of  troops  was  occurring. 


« 


A register  and  a map  plot  was  made  of  targets,  which  had 
the  effect  of  mapping  targets  in  the  enemy  country,  (bee  diagrams 
1 and  2).  This  method  was  early  suggested  by  the  writer  as  a zone 
map  and  register  for  each  battery,  which  was  to  be  left  in  any  va- 
cated position  by  the  outgoing  battery,  but  in  case  of  a retreat 
it  was  filed  with  General  Headquarters.  This  was  adopted  at  head- 
quarters, but  great  difficulty  was  found  in  having  it  carried  out 
in  practice.  Later,  the  so-called  artillery  zone  board  was  con- 
structed by  survey  sections,  which  located  the  battery  position 
and  many  points  visible  and  invisble  from  the  battery,  buch  lo- 
cations made  by  the  survey  for  a battery  , both  by  triangulation 
and  by  air  photographs,  were  indexed  and  filed,  so  that  at  any 
future  time  a new  plat  could  be  supplied  to  a battery  which,  due 
to  casualty  of  some  sort  or  other,  had  lost  its  original  plat. 

In  addition  to  this,  the  surveys  were  used  for  bringing  maps  up 
to  date. 

Here  may  be  indicated  a method  for  identifying  activity 
of  any  sort  by  aerial  survey.  It  was  discovered  that  if  successive 
photographs  were  taken  of  any  particular  area,  and  the  negatives 
compared  by  superimposing  one  on  the  other  and  holding  them  up  to 
the  light,  a very  slight  change  would  show  up  distinctly,  whereas 
a side  by  side  comparison  of  the  pictures  would  require  consider- 
able time  and  experience  for  the  observer  to  locate  the  same 
changes.  It  is  necessary  that  the  negatives  be  approximately  on 
the  same  scale.  This  method  lends  itself  to  several  useful  pur- 
poses, i.e.  - 

(a)  It  is  well  known  that  certain  rivers,  for  instance , 
the  Mississippi,  change  their  course  considerably  from  year  to 


38 

year,  and  a complete  ground  level  survey  is  practically  impossible. 

A week's  photographic  survey  per  year  from  an  airplane  would  give 
the  information  on  which  could  be  based  a more  economic  control  of 
such  a river. 

(b)  Much  of  the  forest  lands  of  the  United  btates  have  not 
been  completely  surveyed.  An  aerial  survey  would  give  information 
which  would  be  valuable  in  lumber  controversies,  and  would  also  give 
the  Forestry  Service  a useful  and  valuable  means  for  controlling 
the  lumber  business. 

Such  use  of  the  air  service  would  not  only  be  good  train- 
ing for  future  war  aviators,  but  would  serve  a most  useful  purpose 
in  time  of  peace  in  training  observers  in  performing  useful  duties 
vdhich  would  require  a greater  degree  of  concentration,  and  which 
would  also  tend  to  complete  a survey  of  the  country,  which  is  much 
needed . 

In  addition  to  the  two  instances  noted  above  on  the  value 
of  air  surveys,  it  becomes  invaluable  where  triangulat ion  points 
are  easily  located  from  photographs  for  ordinary  surveys.  It  is 
necessary,  however,  that  the  camera  used  be  perfectly  vertical 
when  pictures  are  taken. 

The  battery  survey  became  the  most  satisfactory  method 
for  locating  positions,  but  it  is  one  that  cannot  keep  up  with  the 
demand  of  batteries  in  moving  warfare.  Every  battery  officer 
should  be  trained,  therefore,  in  constructing  an  artillery  board 
for  himself,  on  which  is  plotted  targets  engaged. 


4 


, 

• 

c 


Diagram  1 


Buttery  Lone  Map 


Target 

Mo. 

Range 

Yds. 

Deflection 
from  Zero  Line 

Angle  of  ; Remarks 

bight 

1 

960 

6°  R ' 

15'  E 

Hindenburg  Junct. 

2 

950 

6°  L 

25'  E 

Junct.of  4th  & 5th 
Trench 

3 

1300 

5°  Ft 

35'  E 

belwaban  Redoubt 

4 

1150 

12°  R 

20'  E 

Trench  X 

5 

1100 

10°  R 

10  1 D 

Men  of  Pottage  Junct 

Diagram  2 - air  photograph  showing  typical  patchwork  of  cultivation 
dnd  roads  (Elevation  about  20,000') 


40 

The  artillery  board 
made  for  a particular  bat- 
tery position  consists  of 
a zinc  covered  board  on 
which  is  pasted  a piece  of 
plain  paper.  Lear  the  bottom 
of  the  board  is  located  the 
position  of  the  pivot  gun 
of  the  battery,  and  the 
line  marked  nxo"  represents 
approximately  the  center  line  of  tie  zone  to  be  covered  by  the  bat- 
tery. The  necessity  for  such  a board  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  or- 
dinary cloth  or  paper  map  becomes  stretched  out  of  proportion  with 
folding  and  use,  and  scaling  off  such  a map  lends  to  notorious  in- 
accuracies. The  zinc  top  to  the  board  was  used  in  order  to  decrease 
map  scale  change.  The  essential  targets  were  then  plotted  (after 
data  had  been  obtained  and  plotted  from  the  survey  section  as  to  the 
most  essential  landmarks),  from  the  actual  firing  data  after  all 
corrections  had  been  made  for  normal  muzzle  velocity,  temperature 
of  air  and  charge,  wind  direction  and  velocity,  barometric  varia- 
tion, and  ammunition  used.  Line  "xO"  should  also  represent  the 
line  to  a well-defined  reference  point.  With  the  above  indicated 
data  and  the  addition,  from  time  to  time,  of  targets  engaged,  the 
artillery  board  becomes  an  accurate  map  which  can  be  used  night  or 
day  by  the  battery. 

The  original  points  are  accurately  located  by  means  of  a 
transit  or  theodolite  triangulation.  Such  accuracy  is  not  attain- 
able, however,  unless  trench  warfare  is  being  employed.  It  is, 
moreover,  unnecessary  in  moving  warfare.  In  order  that  the  above 


Qrti  Here/  Board 


. 


41 


plan  may  work  to  the  "best  advantage,  it  becomes  necessary  that 
several  triangulat ion  points  be  available  to  the  battery  and 
the  bearings  from  these  to  prominent  points  carefully  marked  so 
that,  in  case  of  accident,  the  points  can  be  easily  re-set. 

Artillery  Register.  An  artillery  register  should  con- 
sist of  a tabulation  of  the  essential  results  of  battery  surveys, 
and  should  be  made  out  so  that  a similar  battery  might  occupy  the 
same  position  and  be  able  to  reproduce  similar  results  without 
delay.  It  should  consist  of  the  original  firing  data,  and  also 
these  data  corrected  for  a gun  of  normal  muzzle  under  normal  con- 
ditions. Such  a register  is  here  indicated: 


Register  of  a Battery,  Occupying  Position  

with  hone  Aero  Line  Laid  out  on  (here  give  map 

reference  and  describe) 

Signature  of  Commanding  Officer  

The  headings  will  be  given  in  sequence  and  numbered  consecutively. 


1 2 3 4 " 5 6 7 8 9 10  11  12  13  14  15 


1.  Target  Ho. 

2.  Apparent  ’lap  Range. 

3.  Deflection  from  vo " line. 

4.  Site. 

5.  Wind  angle  to  B.T.  line. 

6.  Wind  velocity. 

7.  Charge  Temperature. 

8.  Barometer  pressure. 

9.  Air  Temperature. 

10.  Correction  for  Type  of  Shell. 

11.  Apparent  ,<un  Range. 

12.  Actual  Gun  Range. 

13.  Corrected  Normal  Gun  Range. 

14.  Corrected  Normal  Deflection. 

15.  Remarks. 


42 


The  target  number  should  carry  with  it  a description  of  the 
target  in  the  remarks  column. 

The  apparent  map  range  is  the  range  measured  from  the  map. 

Deflection  from  zero  line  may  he  measured  right  or  left 
from  zero  line  in  degrees  or  mills,  or  may  he  the  number  of  degrees 
or  mills  clockwise  from  zero  line,  according  to  the  usages  of  the 
army  in  question. 

Site  is  measured  in  degrees  or  mills  from  the  horizontal 
line,  and  represents  the  vertical  angle  from  the  gun  that  the  tar- 
get is  above  or  below  it. 

Wind  Angle  to  BT  line  represents  the  direction  that  the 
wind  is  blowing,  and  is  measured  from  the  line  true  north  clock- 
wise and  is  obtained,  as  is  ,/ind  Velocity,  from  the  strata  wind 
data  obtained  from  meteorological  soundings. 

Charge  Temperature  is  the  average  temperature  of  the 
charge  or  propellant  used  for  the  particular  shot , the  effect 
being  to  increase  or  decrease  the  muzzle  velocity  from  normal, 
according  as  the  temperature  is  above  or  below  normal. 

Barometer  Pressure  gives  the  atmospheric  pressure  at  gun 
l'evel,  and  affects  the  range  of  the  shell  by  decreasing  or  increas- 
ing it  from  normal,  according  as  the  barometer  is  below  or  above 
normal  pressure. 

Air  Temperature  is  the  temperature  of  the  air,  and  affects 
the  distance  a shell  will  travel  by  increasing  or  decreasing  the 
range,  according  as  the  air  temperature  is  above  or  below  normal. 

Correction  for  Type  of  Shell.  All  range  tables  are  made 
out  for  a normal  gun,  normal  charge  ana  atmospheric  conditions, 
and  for  a particular  weight  and  shape  of  shell.  According  as  to 


. 

- 


. 


43 


whether  a shell  is  heavier,  larger,  or  has  a different  shape,  so 
will  a variation  come  in  the  distance  it  will  travel  for  a defin- 
ite push  from  behind.  This  correction  may  be  positive,  negative, 
or  zero,  according  to  the  variation  of  the  above  conditions. 

Apparent  Gun  Kange  is  the  range  obtained  from  the  applica- 
tion to  map  range  of  the  corrections  indicated  above. 

Actual  Gun  Range.  It  is  assumed  here  that  your  guns  have 
been  calibrated,  either  in  the  field  by  witness  point  method,  or 
by  some  other  method,  and  this  will  be  the  gun  range  you  obtain 
under  the  indicated  conditions. 

Corrected  Normal  Jun  hange  is  the  normal  gun  range  to  the 
target,  considering  corrections  for  muzzle  velocity  of  the  gun 
used.  This  is  also  the  range  that  the  normal  gun  will  need  to 
hit  the  target  under  normal  conditions  of  charge,  temperature, 
wind,  etc.  This  is  also  the  actual  distance  between  gun  and  tar- 
get, and  should  be  plotted  on  your  artillery  board. 

Corrected  normal  deflection  is  the  correction  due  to  wind 
alone,  or  it  is  the  deflection  that  would  be  given  to  the  gun 
were  there  no  wind  -or  when. the  wind  is  directly  ur  or  down  range. 

Diagram  3 shows  a tar- 
get sheet.  This  sheet  is 
made  up  of  cross  section 
paper  with  the  large 
squares  as  shown  represent- 
ing some  division  of  range. 
In  the  British  Army,  these 
squares  represented  1000 
yards;  in  the  French,  they 

Each  decree  and  each  100  yds.  is  also 

represented . represented  1000  meters. 


Diagram  3 


« 


, 


. 


1 ' 

. 


44 


Radiating  from  the  lower  left-hand  corner  were  rays  representing 
degrees  or  mills  from  that  point.  The  battery  pivot  gun  was  as- 
sumed to  occupy  the  lower  left-hand  corner,  and  according  to  the 
direction  in  which  you  were  firing,  the  left-hand  edge  repre- 
sented either  the  east,  north,  west,  or  south  true  direction. 
Supposing  a target  were  engaged  in  the  portion  of  the  plat  indi- 
cated in  heavy  line.  The  target  could  be  sketched  in  as  shown; 
the  arc  shown  as  passing  through  the  small  section  would  have  its 
range  value  indicated.  The  actual  map  reference  of  the  target 
should  be  put  in,  together  with  the  north  point.  This  small  sec- 
tion should  then  be  cut  out  and  pasted  in  a target  note  book  with 
the  firing  orders  for  battery  under  normal  conditions. 

The  latter  method  is  suggested  for  the  battery  commander 
to  use  as  part  of  his  record.  The  battery  survey  can  only  become 
available  after  the  batteries  have  been  in  position  for  a consider- 
able length  of  time.  The  above  target  sheet  method  can  be  used, 
however,  in  all  circumstances  and  as  rapidly  as  targets  can  be  en- 
gaged. It  serves  as  a means  of  recording  targets  and  gives  also 
a picture  which  can  be  handed  over  to  other  battery  commanders 
taking  over  the  position  occupied,  and  can  be  kept  in  a small 
notebook. 

Locating  Hostile  Batteries  and  Engaging  Them  Without 
Direct  Observation.-  In  the  early  days  of  the  war,  the  location 
of  hostile  batteries  was  more  or  less  a difficult  matter  unless  di- 
rect observation  could  be  obtained.  So-called  flash  spotting  and 
sound  ranging  had  not  been  organized  at  that  time.  The  previous 
employment  of  artillery  had  not  contemplated  to  any  extent  any- 
thing but  warfare  of  the  moving  type,  in  which  the  location  of  the 


1 


. 


. 

. 


45 


enemy  without  direct  observation  had  not  been  seriously  considered. 
There  are  several  methods  available,  some  of  which  lend  themselves 
readily  to  moving  warfare,  and  others  of  which  require  a certain 
time  to  elapse  before  they  can  be  made  useful.  As  an  instance, 
the  writer,  together  with  two  other  officers,  was  able  to  get  fair- 
ly good  results  in  the  following  manner:  Two  observing  positions 

were  selected  whose  location  was  well  indicated  on  the  map  and  were 
connected  by  telephone.  A protractor  was  securely  fixed  to  each 
observing  position  lookout,  with  the  zero  eithei  set  at  true  north 

or  south,  or  at  some  convenient  angle,  it  being  important  that  the 

observing 

zero  direction  in  eachAposit ion  should  be  parallel.  An  improvised 
back  and  fore  sight  was  pivoted  about  the  protractor  center,  each 
having  a little  luminous  paint  applied,  in  order  to  sight  on.  At 
night,  when  things  might  be  dull  and  time  going  very  monotonously 
for  the  observing  officer,  a little  improvised  flash  spotting  would 
be  indulged  in,  and  it  is  astonishing  the  results  that  were  ob- 
tained. When  ammunition  became  more  plentiful,  division  shots 
were  organized  on  such  a plan.  The  base  and  tw;o  included  angles 
of  a triangle  being  known,  and  providing' the  base  was  reasonably 
long,  the  enemy  battery  positions  were  fairly  accurately  located. 

In  addition  to  this,  it  was  the  divisional  duty  of  the 
writer,  about  the  same  period  of  the  war,  to  destroy  any  dead 
shells  that  might  be  located  along  the  divisional  front.  A pam- 
phlet on  enemy  shells  and  fuses  being  available,  it  was  a simple 
matter,  on  locating  the  dead  shell  and  the  furrow  made  by  it,  to 
locate,  fairly  accurately,  the  battery  firing  it,  provided  the 
time  setting  of'  the  fuse  could  be  distinguished.  The  method 
adopted  was  to  locate  the  furrow  on  the  ground  by  compass  inter- 
sectlon,  and  also  to  determine  the  bearing  of  the  furrow,  and 


' 

, 

. 

. 

. 


46 


then  from  the  fuse  setting  to  obtain  the  distance  it  had.  traveled. 
Prom  these  data,  a calculation  for  the  angle  to  the  battery,  cor- 
recting for  drift  of  the  shell,  could  be  made,  and  the  battery  fir- 
ing the  shell  located  on  the  map.  The  direction  of  the  drift  could 
be  determined  from  the  incline  of  the  groves  in  the  driving  band 
with  the  axis  of  the  shell.  These  are  means  which  can  be  utilized 
by  any  battery  in  any  kind  of  warfare,  and  are  both  simple  in  oper- 
ation. 

The  French  had  outlined  about  five  practical  methods  of 
sound  ranging  for  locating  hostile  batteries  early  in  1915,  and 
later  in  the  same  year,  the  British  adopted  a separate  organiza- 
tion for  flash  spotting  and  sound  ranging,  and,  due  to  the  fact 
that  many  engineers  were  available  in  the  artillery  and  other 
units,  found  good  material  with  which  to  build  such  &n  organiza- 
tion. It  should  be  noted  here  that  an  officer  trained  as  a ar- 
tilleryman, and  who  also  has  had  the  technical  training  of  a civil 
engineer,  becomes  most  invaluable  for  this  work.  The  man  without 
artillery  experience,  although  technically  trained,  is  apt  to  cre- 
ate some  of  the  most  difficult  situations  because  he  cannot  vizual- 
ize  the  needs  of  the  particular  type  of  gun  he  is  serving,  and  is 
inclined  to  enter  into  technical  discussions  which,  although  they 
may  be  valuable,  do  not  produce  results  on  the  enemy. 

Plash  spotting  and  sound  ranging  are  complementary  to  each 
other,  and  do  not  overlap.  Plash  spotting  is  hampered  by  fog,  and 
is  assisted  by  a hard  wind,  because  wind  destroys  fog.  Bound  rang- 
ing flourishes  best  when  opposite  conditions  prevail;  a fog  is  the 
time  when  the  best  results  are  obtained,  because,  while  a wind  in- 
terferes with  the  velocity  of  sound  upon  which  sound  ranging  depends. 


►3  n 


47 


fog  is  apt  to  exist  only  when  the  wind  velocity  is  small. 

Flash  Spotting.  Very  little  explanation  is  necessary  with 
reference  to  flash  spotting,  because  it  is  a simple  matter  of  tri- 
angulation. The  number  of  stations  used  per  sector  were  usually 
four.  This  number  was  adopted  in  order  to  check  mistakes  due  to 
measuring,  and  also  to  insure  that  the  same  batteries  were  being 
observed.  It  takes  from  four  to  five  hours  to  lay  out  four  sta- 
tions on  a sufficient  base  and  tie  it  in  either  to  a triangulat ion 
system  or  to  an  accurate  map.  The  most  important  thing  about  flash 
spotting,  next  to  accurate  observation,  is  telephonic  communication 
This  must  be  so  responsive  that  little  difficulty  is  encountered 
in  insuring  that  observation  is  on  the  same  battery  from  each  post 
at  the  same  time.  The  most  essential  consideration  for  success  is 
the  training  of  the  personnel  in  concentrating  on  one  battery. 

Flash  spotting  will  not  only  locate  hostile  batteries,  but  can  be 
used  for  ranging  on  a target  at  night.  In  fact,  the  greatest  suc- 
cess can  be  obtained  from  flash  spotting  only  at  night. 


\Z.  0 R 

elexhonj 
ransi t 
'ield  Glasses 


to  o . h . b • 


*7 


H q 


3 officers 

14  O.R. 

Telephones 
Plotting  Boarff^ 

.General  Layout  of  a Flash  bndjttVn^' Uri'it^  Vj’th  Instruments 


ft o 


■ 


. 


. 

. 


. 


48 

'Jach  observing  position  was  equipped  with  a transit,  a pair 
of  field  glasses,  and  necessary  maps  and  telephone  with  10  or  1£ 
operators.  .Such  headquarters  was  equipped  with  telephones,  switch- 
boards, necessary  maps,  aerial  photographs,  and  plotting  arrangements 
with  about  14  operators  and  5 officers. 

The  flash  from  a battery  below  the  crest  of  a hill  or  under 
cover  at  night  does  not  show  as  a point,  but  as  a broad  light  re- 
flected in  the  sky.  The  pin  point  location,  therefore,  is  difficult 
to  obtain.  The  best  thc*t  can  be  done  is  to  locate  the  center  of  the 
sky  reflection  of  the  flo,sh.  With  good  training  of  the  personnel, 
however,  and  the  use  of  several  stations,  good  results  were  obtained. 

hound  hanging.  Sound  ranging  depends  very  largely  on  the 
condition  of  the  atmosphere,  and  for  this  reason  hard  wind  is  par- 
ticularly detrimental  to  its  accurate  employment.  This  particular 
atmospheric  condition,  however,  is  condusive  tc  good  visibility, and 
therefore  flash  spotting  operates  more  satisfactorily  under  those 
conditions,  while  at  times,  when  the  wind  is  low,  fog  is  more  like- 
ly to  occur,  and  sound  ranging  can  then  do  its  best  work.  The  value 

of  sound  ranging  is  dependent 
upon  knowing  the  velocity  of 
sound.  The  layout  consists  of 
a series  of  microphones  set  at 
different  points  along  the 
front  where  sound  records  are 
required.  The  microphones  are 
accurately  located  by  transit 

and  are  connected  through  an 
and  circuit 

electric  battery  to  a point 


^JargeT 


49 

in  rear  where  an  automatic  device  is  set  up  for  recording.  ( 6ee 
diagram,  page  46. 

The  principle  governing  the  operating  of  sound  ranging  is 
that  sound  travels  at  a definite  rate,  and  therefore  will  not  reach 
each  microphone  at  the  same  time.  Hence,  if  the  difference  in  the 
time  that  it  takes  the  sound  to  reach  each  microphone  can  be  ac- 
curately measured  by  suitable  instruments,  the  point  from  which 
the  sound  comes  can  be  located,  as  the  sound  waves  of  an  explos- 
ion or  of  a gun  firing  reach  any  microphone,  it  sets  up  a variable 
resistance  in  the  circuit  determined  by  the  amount  and  rate  of  vi- 
bration of  the  microphone  capsule  disc. 

At  the  recording  end  of  each  microphone 
circuit  is  connected  a magnet  which 
operates  a small  needle.  These 
needles  are  so  placed  that  a continuous 
photograph  can  be  made  of  the  needle 
points  on  a photographic  film  similar 
to  that  used  for  moving  picture  opera- 
tion. The  photograph  of  the  needle 
point  appears  as  a straight  line  until  the  microphone  is  affected 
by  a sound  wave  reaching  it.  This  varies  the  resistance  in  the 
circuit  as  above  indicated,  and  varies  the  strength  of  the  magnet 
influencing  the  point  of  the  needle,  the  result  being  that  a sound 
curve  is  represented  on  the  film.  The  needles  under  the  influence 
of  each  microphone  circuit  are  set  one  above  the  other  on  the  film, 
and  therefore,  if  the  time  factor  can  be  measured  on  the  film,  the 
automatic  record  of  explosions  can  be  obtained.  The  time  factor 
is  obtained  by  photographing  a series  of  needles  attached  to  a 


. 


, 


. 


f 


50 


wheel , which  is  operated  by  a clock.  The  division  marked  on  the 
film  is  l/lOO  of  a second,  and,  since  .sound  travels  about  1150  ft. 
per  second,  the  accuracy  of  measurement  was  within  about  6 feet. 

The  films  each  have  six  microphone  circuits  shown  on  them;  each 
line  is  a photograph  of  the  trace  of  a needle,  and  the  film  dis- 
tance between  two  similar  curves  represents  the  difference  in  time 
it  takes  the  sound  to  reach  the  different  microphones.  The  first 
film  shows  a valuable  record  from  which,  when  the  position  of  each 
microphone  is  known  and  the  positions  of  each  one  plotted,  a graph- 
ical solution  may  be  obtained  of  the  position  of  the  gun  firing  or 
of  the  burst  of  a shell  in  ranging.  The  second  film  shows  a bom- 
bardment. The  bombardment  is  of  such  a nature  that  no  individual 
record  stands  out  from  which  measurement  can  be  made.  This  shows 
the  limitations  of  sound  ranging,  indicating  that  it  is  of  no  use 
in  a bombardment.  This,  of  course,  applies  to  any  type  of  ranging. 

A graphical  solution  is  here  indicated  of  the  record  of  a sound 
ranging  problem. 


The  numbers  1 — 6 represent  the  microphones.  The  raaions  of 
the  small  circles  represent  the  difference  of  target  distance 
between  No. 3 microphone  and  the  others.  Three  points  may  deter- 
mine the  circle,  of  which  the  target  is  the  center. 


51 


The  graphical  solution  of  the  problem  was  worked  out  to  such 
a point  of  rapidity  that  the  ordinary  battery,  such  as  was  used  for 
counter  battery  work,  could  be  ranged  on  any  offending  enemy  battery 
by  the  method  indicated  above,  without  delay.  The  6 microphones 
operated  as  a factor  of  safety  to  eliminate  errors  likely  to  creep 
in,  due  to  atmospheric  conditions. 

It  is  obvious  that  both  sound  ranging  and  flash  spotting  are 
of  little  use  when  a bombardment  is  in  progress,  although  very  heavy 
guns,  which  were  not  numerous,  could  be  picked  out,  even  in  a bom- 
bardment, with  sound  ranging. 

CONSTRUCTION  OR  GUN  PITS  AND  AI.1IUN  I T I ON  DUMPS 
During  the  spring,  summer,  and  autumn  of  1915,  the  Allies 
found  themselves  in  a very  difficult  position.  The  losses  in  ma- 
terial suffered  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  campaign  had  left  them 
with  relatively  little  ammunition  and  few  guns.  The  winter  of 
1914-15  allowed  them  to  settle  down  to  trench  warfare,  but  the 
enemy  counter  battery  work  kept  the  Allies  from  recuperating  in 
a satisfactory  manner.  In  the  spring  of  1915,  the  newly  trained 
troops  began  to  arrive,  together  with  equipment  of  new  guns,  and 
it  became  very  imperative  that  the  casualties  to  guns  be  kept  as 
low  as  possible  and  that  ammunition  be  husbanded  for  emergency, 
in  order  to  tide  over  the  Allies  until  the  production  of  an  army 
and  the  mobilization  of  factories  could  so  increase  the  guns 
and  ammunition  supply  that  the  Allies  could  begin  to  be  in  a po- 
sition to  take  the  offensive. 

In  order  that  the  minimum  gun  losses  should  occur  during 


. 


. 

. 


mm 


' 53  ! 

houses  and  such  cover  as  the  natural  country  provided,  but  the  pro-  | 
portion  of  such  cover  available  was  but  a small  percent  of  that 
required . 

In  order  to  approach  the  subject,  it  was  necessary  to  esti- 
mate the  action  of  the  enemies’  shells  and  to  determine  how  much 
protection  to  provide  for,  because  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  pro- 
tect against  the  heaviest  shells  and  operate  the  guns.  It  was  de- 
cided, therefore,  to  protect  against  a direct  hit  from  an  ordinary 
15  cm.  (about  6")  percussion  shell,  and  subsequent  bombardments 
showed  that  this  was  obtained  in  many  cases,  although  repeated  direcf 
hits  caused  failure  in  some  instances.  The  next  step  was  to  get 
out  tentative  plans  for  gun  pits  and  adapt  them  to  the  arc  each 
gun  was  to  cover  on  the  front.  The  following  is  a plan  and  eleva- 


V 


£4 

In  laying  out  the  plan  and  elevation  of  the  gun  pit,  it  is 
necessary  that  a templet  "be  made  of  the  general  outline  of  the  gun. 
This  can  he  placed  on  the  ground,  and  by  pivoting  it  about  the  cen- 
ter and  outlining  the  arc  or  fire  the  general  outline  of  the  pit  can 
easily  he  obtained.  By  doing  the  same  thing  in  elevation,  the  neces 
sary  height  of  each  part  of  gun  pit  is  obtained.  It  is  a great  mis- 
take to  make  the  pit  larger  than  is  necessary,  because  the  longer 
the  span  the  beams  are  made  for,  the  weaker  the  pit  becomes,  other 
things  being  equal.  (See  diagram).  In  every  dugout , gun  pit,  and 
quarters  below  ground,  it  is  very  imperative  that  two  outlets  be 
available,  otherwise  an  unfortunate  enemy  shell  may  be  able  to 
practically  put  the  battery  out  of  action  by  simply  blocking  the 
mouth  of  a dugout.  It  is  also  imperative  that  sets  of  tools  be 
left  in  each  excavation  in  order  to  assist  those  who  may  be  im- 
prisoned there.  The  above  observation  may  seem  over-emphasized, 
but  experience  has  shown  that  carrying  out  the  above  suggestion 
has  resulted  in  a saving  of  a considerable  number  of  casualties 
and  in  the  maintenance  of  the  efficiency  01  many  a battery. 

The  following  is  a general  outlay  for  a 6-gun  battery.  It- 
will  be  noted  that  the  guns  are  placed  relatively  close  together. 

The  main  object  in  placing  guns  £0  yards  apart  in  the  open  is  to 
make  it  impossible  for  one  enemy  shell  to  put  two  guns  out  of  ac- 
tion at  the  same  time.  Y/ith  gun  pit  construction,  ti  i-  1 ^ ult 
can  be  obtained  without  occupying  so  much  space.  In  fact,  the 
placing  of  the  pits  as  close  as  possible  gives  greater  protection 
to  the  personnel  dugouts  and  aids  in  the  efficient  operation  of 
the  battery,  and  also  makes  the  carrying  out  of  a camouflage  plan 


much  easier. 


Plan  of  a Six  Gun  Battery  Position 


r 

:f 

E 


S' 

3 
VS“ 





bDr-t  d a> 

d d O 
P O >5^ 

o si  d a> 

ttl)  CQ  r— I CO 


P CD 

p 

CO 

CO 

d ,d  d 

o 

PP  d 

O P o 
d P 

d 

g 

'd  d 
p d 

«H  P P 

CD 

d 

P;P 

d 

• •* 

d CD  CO 

d 

d 

d uQ 

POO 

o 

CD  rH 

PL,  CO  P 
d P 

frfr3 

CD  d 
4-5  m C4 


05 


d 


CO 


d rd 


d •» 
ra  • 

• © 0 

© tO  H > 

•H  <d  nzi  O 

P bD  d & 
d d d d 
Orl^l 

o «h  a . , 

O pS  >jO 
O P J-t 

CO  S P «H  CO 


CO 


CD 


d rH 


«H 


t3  'Ct 


CD  0) 

rd  si 

p p 

«H  P 
O O 

d u 

CD  d 
■d  CD 


P P CD 
Pc  d <H 
CD  d «H 

d -H 
CO*  T3 


d 


'd  Pc  CD 


X *H  CD 

>»  d cd 

d a 

CQ 

•h  si 

d *h  p 

cjd  >»  d 

d 

CO  CO  P 

d d 

•H  H 'o 

d 

CD  p 

CO  CD 

CO 

<1  d d 

d p d 

CD  t>  d 

d 

d p 

d o 

d P O 

& 

>* 

CD  CD 

CQ  P 

d 

Cb  CD  t> 

co  d p 

CD 

o d 

o.si  d 

d CD  P 

d 

CM  3 

d p ,-d 

& p d 

o 

56 


The  gams  are  put  into  the  pits  from  the  front,  and  in  case 
of  enemy  advance,  can  readily  he  run  out  to  engage  any  kind  of  tar- 
get that  might  appear  without  necessarily  demolishing  the  construc- 
tion. The  pits  also  serve  as  rallying  points  for  infantry,  and  can 
readily  he  considered  as  strong  points  for  the  operation  of  machine 
gun  nests.  During  winter  or  trench  operation,  such  pits  protect  the 
artillery  personnel  and  insure  better  support  to  the  infantry. 

This  thesis  has  been  ‘undertaken  for  two  purposes,  namely: 
First. , to  show  the  gradual  growth  in  the  importance  of 
artillery  in  modern  warfare. 

Second , to  endeavor  to  outline  some  of  the  problems  of 
the  artillery  personnel  and  to  record  such  experience  as  the  writer 
has  had  which  might  he  helpful  in  the  future. 


